SUNSET MUSINGS

 

      

                       

 1)  Let not our lives be stagnant pools

     Why feel nervous, be steady and cool

     No professional ordeals to test

     Your endurance and disturb your rest;

     No family burdens to ruffle thy brain;

     No rivalries with peers to compete

     No tensions and arguments with heat;

     No mounting expenses your purse to drain;

     Why should we rack our brains with worries vain?

      About our future unknown with unnecessary strain?

 

2)   Don’t feel your position and power are lost

       In this material world nothing does last;

       Though experience made you a little bit wise

       You are not master of all; exercise

       Control on what you do, say and advise 

       Times and tastes change, feel no shock or surprise;  

       Watch from respectful distance, be calm

       Don’t be an interfering, peeping Tom.

 

3)     Compel not youngsters to leave their tasks and hear

        Your stories and expect applause with cheer;

        Don’t give others troubles-- no stress and strain;

        Waste not their busy scheduled time; don’t complain

        Don’t whine for their consistent care and maintain

        Composure; take care of yourself; don’t grieve in vain.

        Control yourself and your attitude; not others, I say.

        Give your suggestions if sought in a modest way.

 

4)      Your generation’s tastes and ways don’t impose

         On them; no list of rules and laws propose;

         Argue not too much and no negative thoughts;

         Times change our ways; no use of retrieving past;

         A lot of time and leisure you do possess

         Help others if you can; don’t assess

         Others boasting about your experience and age;

         Be a part of this world; control your craze. 

 

5)      Enough resources you have by divine grace

         And still you strive with wants, your remaining days

         Desires deprive you of your contented state

         And make you view your life as waste;

         No uniformity in world you find

         Even heavenly bliss can’t satisfy your mind;

         Spend your time in peaceful contentment

         Enjoy what you possess; no use of resentment.

 

6)      Good books revitalize your ageing mind

          In arts and hobbies solace you find;

         Waste not your time in arguments vain

         Widen your range with knowledge and wisdom gain;

          Most of our bonds like passing clouds vanish

          Know this and clouds of loneliness banish

          Time’s plan you have to follow, no more dread

          With faith in God and yourself, go ahead;

          Our destined end like setting sun comes near

          Into new domains move on with philosophic cheer.

                   *******************************

                        

           16th October, 2020                       Somaseshu Gutala

             

Managers

 

      

   1)   How often do we use this word to mean      

         A way of doing things in a dubious way

         As if we are always right and never stray

         Yes—we manage ourselves though seen or unseen.

  2)    Our family burdens we try to manage              

        By pleasing others or our persons known

        If not treated as strange creatures and overthrown;

        We have to act like puppets on the stage

 

   3)  Our seniors and leaders we should manage 

        Showing due respect and give their gifts due

        If you oppose, you get yourself in stew;

        Our scriptures too command respect in every page.

 

       4)   In offices also we should manage

        With tempting bribes and bakshis a lot

        If not, you can’t melt their rigid and stagnant hearts

        No use of quoting rules and advice sage.

 5)   In getting loans and rise in wages too

       One has to tread with tactful care

       One has to yield to them and give their share

       And what they demand one has to simply do. 

 

    6)    In homely life we can’t avoid this clue

      To get things done by our members dear

      To keep them in good spirits and cheer

      If not, you turn their faces red or blue.

 

   7)    Like hanging knives above, our duties surprise

      Fret not, none hears, manage them wise;

      Your furious words may land you in soup

      Trolling remarks assault you in group.

 

     8)   We have to manage with growing age

      Our chronic complaints and growing ills

      With limited income, our medical bills;

      We have to manage to come out through this maze.

 

   9)    We may not reach of what we have thought

     We have to manage with what we possess

     Our destiny was set beyond our guess

     Accept with peace whatever you got.

 

  10)   Even our gods we try to please and manage

      Promising gifts to grant our desires

      Our motives only our faith inspire

      In a mutual give and take our gods we engage.

 

11) Whatever service you require you need

     To manage someone or other to please

     Even saints and sages fell to this

     To hike their status and get things done with speed.

 

12)   You can’t speak out open like a fool

         You will be looked down as a savage strange

         Who can’t control and goes out of range

          Smart management, a universal rule.

13)    Our gods wisely managed their powers and might

          Demons proudly misused their strength with spite

          Rash words and acts push us into wretched plight

         Managing ourselves , a sure way to peaceful delight.    

 

  14)   Our society, prefers this useful   stand;

          Manage well or suffer your fate and none

          To pull you out of what you have done.

          Into unpredictable troubles you will land.

 

15)     A superb art, this smart managing skill

           Hasty decisions spoil our inner ease

           Life’s lessons we have to realise in peace;

           To get some things done, you have to bend your will.

                 *****************************

             12th October, 2020                     Somaseshu Gutala

Note : This poem gives a humorous sketch of the changing values in our society where priority is given to materialistic values at the expense of emotional and moral values. The individual is compelled to compromise his values and move with the flow for his ultimate survival and livelihood. 

                                  Bakshis --- tips.

                                 Get oneself stewed --- get upset 

            

       

   

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

A Country’s Dream (Part—II)

  

Emanicipation Proclamation by Abraham Lincoln in 1863.

Harryu Truman(1884-1972)

                                                                                               Franklin Roosevelt (1882-1945)                                   

 

The Puritan migrants in 1630’s went to America to practice their own religion of choice without harassment. They wished to set up an ideal Christian colony and thought that God had led them to new world and regarded New England as “city upon a hill.” For them it is a new kind of Jerusalem, Garden of Eden or new Israel.  The Spanish missionaries also went to America to convert Native Americans to Christianity. The Germans after the failed revolution in 1848 fled to America to lead a happy in the new world. The discovery of gold mines in California in 1849 caused many immigrants to go to America in search of procuring instant success and wealth. The availability of vast virgin land with plenty of natural resources available at throw away prices spurred many people to explore new avenues for getting wealth and a happy life free from religious, political and traditional restraints. 

The famous Historian, Frederick Jackson Turner, in 1893 propounded the “Frontier Thesis’ for evolution of the American dream. Turner proposed that American character had been greatly enhanced and shaped by the presence of a vast frontier creating favorable conditions for population mobility, Inventiveness and democratic spirit. According to Turner, ”The forging of the unique and rugged American identity occurred at the juncture between the civilization of settlement and the savagery of wilderness. The spirit and success of America is directly tied to the westward expansion.” He added that America’s character would gradually change with closing of the frontier and the growth of urban environment. But there is a lot of scope for Americans to transform their traits in the present scenario where they have to face so many challenges and avenues too. Advancement in science and technology, economic prosperity and global relations impact their attitudes and way of thinking.

 Slave labor became a social practice in America to provide workers to work in fields, orchards, mines, docks and industries in 18^th and 19^th centuries. So many Africans were compelled to go to America as laborers. Thus America has become a multi-cultural and multi-racial society. 

In course of time the concept of the American dream has been extended to include all the inhabitants irrespective of race, colour and religion. Many social reformers and politicians strove to eliminate racial discrimination and gender discrimination. Abraham Lincoln with his “Emancipation Proclamation” in 1863 declared that all persons held as slaves within any state are forever free. Woodrow Wilson supported women’s voting rights. The American President, Frank Roosevelt in his “Economic Bill of Rights” in 1944 defined the pursuit of happiness as decent housing, a good job and healthcare. President Harry Truman’s “Postwar Social Contract” included G1 Bill providing government-funded college degrees for returning veterans. Truman’s Fair deal proposition expanded the concept of the American dream to include entitlement: “If you worked hard and played by the rules, the government should guarantee financial security, education, healthcare and a home.” On August 28, 1963 Martin Luther King explained American dream in his famous speech “I have a dream” demanding freedom and for economic and civil rights to all and an end to racism in the United States.

 President Lyndon Johnson promoted the Civil Rights Act of 1964 ending segregation in schools and protecting workers from discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex or national origin. Presidents George W. Bush and Bill Clinton supported the dream of home ownership. President Barack Obama supported the legal benefits of the Marriage Act regardless of sexual orientation. To alleviate the adverse effects of economic depression he extended unemployment benefits and increased government assistance for student loans. He also furthered F.D.R.’s (Franklin Delano Roosevelt) idea that everyone should have access to affordable healthcare. “Make America great again” (abbreviated as MEGA) is a campaign slogan frequently used in American politics. Many American presidents like Bill Clinton, Ronald Reagan and recently Donald trump popularized this slogan indicating the ambition behind the American dream of making America the foremost leading nation in all fields in the whole world.

In course of time the American dream acquired some negative connotations also such as materialistic outlook, too much competition, craze for luxuries, over consumption, drug addiction, sexual abuse, degraded social values, sporadic violence, rising inflation, mounting debts and pollution. Craze for power, expansion of capitalist ideology, and wealth pushed American nation in interfering with other countries’ political affairs. This took a heavy toll on expenses and military expenditure. The race for acquisition of nuclear weapons and space travel also caused a heavy drain on its economy. Global problems like climate change, epidemic diseases, radiation, and competition in nuclear arms-race made America to play its dominant role in guiding the world. 

Some say that the American dream has become mere pursuit of material prosperity—that people work more hours to get bigger cars, posh houses, and prosperity for their families, but have less time to enjoy their affluence. Others say that the American dream is beyond the grasp of the poor. Some people look forward to leading a simple and peaceful life with less focus on financial gains and wasteful luxuries. William James called the American dream “the bitch-goddess success” with her “squalid cash interpretations.”

 American Literature may be described broadly as an expression of the American dream. Scott Fitzgerald’s “The great Gatsby” (1925), Arthur Miller’s “Death of a salesman” and Theodore Dreiser’s “An American Tragedy’ (1925) show the negative aspects of the American dream. The famous American dramatist, Eugene O’Neill exposed the illusory nature of the American dream in his plays. Ernest Hemingway in his novel “The old man and the sea” considers success and inner peace as concepts of the American dream. William Dean Howells in his novel “The rise of Silas Lapham” discusses the life of a self-made man depicting America as a land of opportunities with endless possibilities.

 In the present scenario the American nation has a vital role to play in controlling pollution and maintaining world peace. As a wealthy and developed nation it can extend help to other developing and backward countries as in the present circumstances one country cannot survive alone isolated from others. All countries are connected with one another and the welfare of one nation depends on the welfare of other nations in the world. Apart from being called as the land of opportunities where one can rise from rags to riches by hard work and toil, America should turn her attention to global welfare and preservation of mankind from man-made disasters like wars, pollution, nuclear radiation and indiscriminate destruction of Nature and other living beings for material benefits and luxuries. A harmonious, peaceful co-existence is the need of the hour. In short, the American dream is a continuous social phenomenon which acquires new dimensions and aspects to help mankind move forward blending past tradition and present innovations for the benefit of all.

                                   ******************************

   3rd October, 2020                                Somaseshu Gutala

                             

 

 

 

A COUNTRY’S DREAM (Part—I)

             

             

 

                   

 

A country’s dream signifies its goal, objectives and ideologies. A country’s dream determines its style of functioning, organizing and constituting its laws and principles. It is the national ethos of the country and shows its political, social and cultural aspects. America is a new country that started with a noble dream and high aspirations. The American dream is to provide equal opportunities to all irrespective of race, religion and color and create avenues for upward mobility to everyone. The American dream is achieved through sacrifice, risk-taking and hard work. The standard icon of the American dream is the statue of Liberty. It was about originality, individualism and pursuit of happiness.

 Jefferson articulated the “American dream” in his United States Declaration of Independence written in 1776 which stated that the pursuit of happiness is a fundamental right and all men are created equal.   “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”

 The American dream crystallized the ideals of liberty, democracy and equality which had really originated from Europe. Life in America created favorable conditions to realize these ideals in real life as far as possible. Vernon L. Perrington explains the American dream as the process of “a better, richer and happier life for all our citizens of every rank.” 

 The American dream is viewed from two perspectives; religious and secular. From the religious point of view America is viewed as a New Jerusalem, a new Garden of Eden or new Israel with an obviously lofty future. On the other hand the secular interpretation lays emphasis on having a happy family, owning a house and being successful in the land of opportunities with endless possibilities. Benjamin Franklin felt that character and hard work constitute the dream when acquired with values and morality. 

According to American history there are two types of American dreams: the collective and the individual. At individual level it is the dream of a person to get what one seeks. The desire to settle down, to have a good job and to have a happy family is the personal aspiration. At collective level it is transmission of heritage from generation to generation the ideals of democracy, liberty and equality.

The term “The American dream” was first used by James Translow Adams in his book “The Epic of America” written in 1931. The American dream is that dream of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement. Alexis de Toqueville, the French historian, in his book “Democracy in America”, the American dream is “the charm of the anticipated success.”

  The American dream was complex and comprises three parts. The first part is that it sprang from the prevailing conditions of the nineteenth century American life. The chief characteristic of this life was westward expansion or the frontier expansion. Secondly the American dream was influenced by the combination of reality and the idea of a new world offering endless opportunities for a new life. Thirdly the American dream is a combination of certain ideals like liberty, democracy and equality which created a new society with many opportunities for growth and development. 

The American society was previously assumed as a melting pot of various cultures with diverse qualities and skills emphasizing the combination of parts into a single whole. But really speaking it is like a bouquet of flowers with diverse colors each flower retaining its own identity, yet mixing with other ones to form a beautiful bunch of flowers. According to salad bowl theory America as a multi-cultural society is metaphorically compared to a salad bowl integrating different cultures while maintaining their separate identities.

American Literature may be described broadly as an expression of the American dream. Scott Fitzgerald’s “The great Gatsby” (1925), Arthur Miller’s “Death of a salesman” and Theodore Dreiser’s “An American Tragedy’ (1925) show the negative aspects of the American dream. The famous American dramatist, Eugene O’Neill exposed the illusory nature of the American dream in his plays. Ernest Hemingway in his novel “The old man and the sea” considers success and inner peace as concepts of the American dream. William Dean Howells in his novel “The rise of Silas Lapham” discusses the life of a self-made man depicting America as a land of opportunities with endless possibilities.

                        **************************************************

     25th September, 2020                   Somaseshu Gutala

The Impact of Transcendentalism on American Society

                          

                      

                                             

                                                   Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882)                            

                              

                                                        Margaret Fuller (1810-1850)

      

                                                 Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)

                                                      Bronson Alcott's House, Fruitlands

                            

                                                      Thoreau's residence at Walden

  Transcendentalism is a new philosophical and literary movement which brought significant changes in the American society between1830-1860. The term “transcendental” was first used by the German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, in his book “Critique of Pure reason” (1781 and 1787).  In his reply to the skeptical philosophy of Locke, who insisted that intellect derives knowledge and experience through senses, Kant opined that very important class of ideas are acquired through intuitions of the mind which he denominated as transcendental forms. The term “Transcend” means to “go beyond one’s sensual perceptions.” It comes through intuition and imagination and not through logic or senses.

 The transcendentalists believed that everything in creation is a reflection of God. The physical world is the doorway to God. People can use their intuition to see God in Nature and in their minds. Feeling and intuition are superior to reason and intellect. They advocated the idea of a personal God and thought that no intermediary is necessary to get knowledge about God and spiritual insight. They embraced idealism focusing on Nature and opposing materialism. They believed in equality, individualism, self-reliance, integrity, optimism, self-confidence and in subjective intuition over objective empiricism. Most of these people settled in the area around Concord near Boston in Massachusetts.

 It is a reaction against Unitarianism which depended on rational thinking. It also opposed the Puritan concept of human depravity and rigid adherence to religious norms and conventions. Emerson in his essay “The American Scholar” says, “A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds adored by little statesmen, philosophers and divines.” The Unitarians tried to reconcile Locke’s empiricism with Christianity stating that Christ’s miracles provide solid evidence for the truth of religion. Transcendentalists admired Channing’s idea that human beings could become more like God. William Ellery Channing (1780-1842) said that orthodox congregationalism as a religion of fear. In his sermon “Unitarian Christianity’ (1819) he denounced the conspiracy of ages against the liberty of Christians.

The transcendental philosophy of Kant influenced the Transcendentalists to a large extent. The Unitarian Minister and student of Harvard Divinity School, Henry Hedge (1805-1890) organized the transcendental Club in 1836 of which George Ripley, Bronson Alcott and Emerson (1803-1882) were prominent members. They organized nearly thirty meetings between 1836 and 1840. Margaret Fuller, a transcendentalist and woman’s rights activist edited the journal “The Dial” along with Emerson in 1840. Emerson disseminated his thoughts through his essays (two volumes, 1841 and 1844) and gave more than 1500 public lectures to spread the ideals of transcendentalism stressing the need individuality, equality and freedom of thinking without imitating other cultures. Many transcendentalist writers contributed their articles to this journal. Thus they prepared the ground for the first flowering of the American Renaissance producing great writers like Walt Whitman, Herman Melville and Nathaniel Hawthorne.

Margaret Fuller’s book “Woman in the nineteenth century” (1848) was the first feminist manifesto. Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, another female transcendentalist, acted as the business manager of the journal “The Dial” and also established the first English language Kindergarten school in U.S. Another transcendentalist is Louisa May Alcott (1832-1888) was an American novelist, short story writer and poet. She was well-known for her novel “Little Women” (1868) and its sequels “Little Men” (1871 Men” (1871) and “Jo’s Boys” (1886).

 Many transcendentalists tried to explore and experiment with new schemes of living to put their ideals into practice. Thoreau at Walden Pond near Concord, Massachusetts, stayed for two years, two months and two days (1845-1847) to show one can stay happily and peacefully with simple needs in peaceful surroundings of nature. Bronson Alcott, Louis May Alcott’s father, moved to Fruitlands Farmhouse in Harvard town along with his friend Charles Lane in June 1843 to put his philosophical beliefs regarding community family into action. Nearly twenty members lived in this community for six months following the rules of shared labor, prohibition of animal products and abolition of slavery. Louisa May gave a fictionalized account of this event in her story, “Transcendental wild oats.” George Ripley, an American Unitarian Minister and journalist founded a Utopian community at Brook Farm in West Roxbury, Massachusetts in 1841 to follow the transcendentalist principles. Ripley as a social reformer believed in equality of all genders and races and was against the cruel convention of slavery. This community was closed in 1847 due to financial troubles.

 During his European trip Emerson met Thomas Carlyle in 1831. Carlyle’s view of “Natural Supernaturalism” that Nature, including human beings have the power and authority which is traditionally attributed to an independent deity, influenced Emerson. In his essay “American Scholar”, Emerson reiterates that action along with Nature and the mind of the past is essential to humane education. Emerson rejected the Unitarian argument that miracles prove the truth of Christianity. The concepts of the love of beauty, morality and the universal presence of God were taken by him from the Romantic poets.  Thus the influence of Romantic poets with their subjective idealistic approach, contemplation of Nature and individual attitude influenced transcendentalists.

 The influence of Indian scriptures especially that of The Bhagavadgita, Upanishads and Puranas is evident in many transcendentalist writers. Emerson took keen interest in studying Indian poets like Kalidasa and Indian philosophy during a greater part of his life from 1820-1870. His poem “Brahma” depicts the Upanishadic concept of God as all- pervading pure and formless Brahman. He formulated the idea of the "Oversoul" as the absolute reality and basis of all existence; It is the spiritual base or essence of the ideal Nature and is imperfectly manifested in human beings.  In the lines “The strong gods pine for my abode….But, thou, meek lover of the good! Find me and turn thy back on heaven.”—Emerson describes the Karma Yogi who performs actions without expecting any results. Henry David Thoreau studied Hindu and Buddhist philosophy which influenced his concept of pantheism that shows no distinction between human and natural world. Thoreau in his book “Walden” wrote, “In the morning I bathe my intellect in the stupendous and cosmogonal philosophy of the Bhagavatgita.”

  Many transcendentalists supported abolition of slavery, equality of races and women suffrage. They infused an optimistic attitude with a positive outlook and elevated man’s stature from that of a sinner to that of an aspiring soul with a divine spark who can reach godly heights through introspection and pure thoughts. They opposed materialistic attitude and defended the supremacy of creative imagination and insight over dry reason and intellect. They stressed that each country should evolve its own culture and literature without blind imitation. They redefined the idea of religion as an individual affair directed towards self-improvement and moral enlightenment. They criticized government, organized religion, oppressive laws, and increasing industrialization and sought reforms in education and labor laws. Thus one can say that transcendentalism brought about a sweeping change in American society in many fields like religion, culture, literature, politics and education. It laid the foundation for the typical American dream of establishing a flourishing nation with economic prosperity, democratic spirit and creative minds.

                       ******************************

        14th September, 2020                      Somaseshu Gutala

 

 

 

   

                      

 

The Impact of Puritanism on American Society (Part--II)

 

A town in Massachusetts 

                  

Congregational church in Boston

John Winthrop (1588-1649)

   

Cotton Mather (1663-1728)

          

Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672)

                     

   Roger Williams(1603-1683)                                          Anne Hutchinson (1591-1643)

                     

   Almost a decade after Pilgrims’ arrival, Puritans in large numbers migrated to North America in between 1630 and 1640. The first six Puritan colonies comprised Plymouth (1620), New Hampshire (1623), Massachusetts (1628), Connecticut (1634), Rhode Island (1644) and New Haven (1644) in New England region. between 1630 and 1640 nearly nine thousand people came to settle in this area. This period is called the Great Migration. After obtaining a charter Massachusetts Bay Company, John Winthrop led this migration and established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the region of New England and became the Governor of that colony. He soon established Boston as the capital of Massachusetts Bay Colony which later became the most prosperous colony in the region. He maintained a faithful record of daily events in his journal called “History of New England” between 1630 and 1648. His essay “A Model of Christian Charity’ published in 1630 tries to reconcile the relationship between the welfare of the individual and that of community based on a contractual basis.  “We must be knit together in this work as one man, we must entertaine each other in brotherly Affection… The end is to improve our lives to doe more service to the Lord, the comforte and encrease of the body of christe whereof wee are members that ourselves and posterity may be preserved from the Common corrupcions of this evil world to serve the Lord and work out salvacion under the power and purity  of his holy ordinances.. for we must consider that wee shall be as a City upon a hill.” This phrase “City upon a hill” is derived from the Bible’s Sermon on the Mount delivered by Jesus “You are the light of the world. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hidden.”

 All men who were church members elected the Governor and representatives for the General Court. They followed the rules of the Old Testament and laid down strict rules for the society. The colony prospered well as the Puritans cultivated crops, cut timber for building ships and bred sheep for making woolen clothes. The Puritan Church or Congregation rejected church hierarchy and veneration of saints and worship of idols or iconography. Their religious rites are also simple and were limited to Baptism and Communion. They gave importance to vernacular Bible--the Geneva Bible which was widely used by the English-speaking people all over Western Europe. They did not encourage the use of musical instruments and choirs in worship. They believed that they were the elect who would obtain grace from God and also by their ideal way of living without pomposity and sensual pleasures. They perceived the fulfillment of the Old Testament in their own lives and looked upon America as “a city on a hill”, a kind if new Eden. They searched and tried to interpret all events and happenings in terms of God’s anger and favor.  The Puritan conception of male supremacy or patriarchal society excluded women from decision making in church and in state affairs. Women had to dress themselves correctly covering their hair and arms. They were not allowed to possess property and conduct any business. Women were not allowed to preach scriptures or interpret them. They had to serve God and the community by being good wives mothers and household managers. People had to conform to rules on the Sabbath such as prohibition from drinking, swearing, playing cards; the persons who violated these rules were made to pay fines and even were whipped. They believed in marriage, disapproved of illicit sexual activities and condemned adultery. They had to do everything in moderation and condemned those who indulged in excess in any activity.

 The Puritan society cherished the ideals of self-government, frugality, industry or hard work, and religious and moral values. Most of the books written during this period are mostly realistic and religious by nature. They gave importance to historical narratives such as personal diaries, sermons, poems and stories written in first person. Most of the Puritan writers preferred plain style without ornate imagery and rhetorical devices since they believed that decorative and ornate words and style was “like painted windows that obscured the clear light of truth.”  Their style was plain, distinct, orderly, and emphatic and proportionate” employing rhetorical devices sanctioned by Biblical use such as parables, analogies, similes, and metaphors, rhythmic and formal syntax. Most of the Puritan writers belonged to official circles such as governors, magistrates (John Smith, William Bradford, Edward Winslow, John Winthrop and Samuel Sewall), and theologians or pastors (John Cotton, Nathaniel Ward, Roger Williams and Edward Taylor). Among them Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor were poets and others wrote about history and exploration of the new colony. 

The Puritans believed that good education would make people give up sins and become good Christians. The first printing press was established in 1636 and in 1640 the first English book "The Bay Psalm Book" was published. Public schools were built in towns from 1635. In some colonies like Connecticut and Plymouth education was made compulsory for all. Financial contribution from church, the wealthy people, philanthropists and taxes from trade helped in developing educational institutions. Harvard College was established in 1636 followed by Yale in Connecticut (1701), New Haven (1716) and Rhode Island (1765). Christian-oriented education along with other subjects like Geography, mathematics, and English Literature ware taught. The first Public Library was established in Boston in 1636.

 Whoever questioned or objected to their views was looked down as a heretic and was severely punished. As per the census reports of the Massachusetts Bay many ladies are named after Christian virtues such as patience, Providence, Silence, Comfort and Hopestill etc. Roger Williams proposed that the colonists should be fair to native Indians and they should not be exploited by using force. He also thought that political leaders should not mix politics and religion. He wanted common people to have more religious freedom and a fair representation of colonists in the general Court. Roger Williams was exiled from the colony for his views. He went to establish a colony at Providence in Rhode Island and founded the Baptist Church. Anne Hutchinson who migrated from Lincolnshire, England, a follower of the Puritan Minister, John Cotton, believed that mercy is preordained by God but damnation is determined by earthly behavior and sin has no vital role to play. At the age of forty three she went to Boston to join Cotton and became a popular preacher. The Puritans held that her ideas were in direct contradiction to their beliefs and she was declared as a heretic and was banished from the colony. She left for the island of Aquidneck in the Rhode Island at the suggestion of Roger Williams where they founded Portsmouth.

 Most of the immigrants that came to this colony were well-educated and came from upper middle class families unlike the Pilgrims who migrated to America on the ship called “The Mayflower” in 1620 seeking religious freedom during the reign of James I in from England. Cotton Mather, grandson of John Cotton, redefined the divine purpose of the community and its mission. He tried to infuse determination and perseverance in the minds of people. Cotton Mather’s magnum opus “Christi Americana” describes the colonial history and glorifies the Puritan faith of his times.  Mather’s verbal skill comparable to that of Washington, Irving and Melville showed the pedantic eloquence of the great American orators. He along with Robert Beverly is considered as the founding fathers of American literary criticism as well. He showed interest in fields of contemporary knowledge such as natural philosophy and medicine. Due to his contribution to science he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1713.  Though he worked as a pastor at Boston’s North Church, he like the other scientists of the day and the later Deists, saw the orderly laws of Nature and wonders of the creation as expressions of the Divine creator.  He saw no conflict between science and religion but rather harmony; science was an incentive to religion that could explain God’s providence and advance divine purposes in the physical universe. In his essay “Christian Philosopher” and “A collection of the best discoveries in nature with religious improvements” Mather attempts to give a rational foundation and explanation to Christianity by trying to reconcile Scripture Revelation with the new sciences, presenting scientific explanations supported by theological justifications.” His writings influenced many eighteenth century writers like Benjamin Franklin and formed a prelude to nineteenth century’s Transcendentalism. Mather published more than 380 works covering various forms; sermons, biography, fables, history, theological and scientific treatises and verse. His writings influenced many eighteenth century writers like Benjamin Franklin and formed a prelude to nineteenth century’s Transcendentalism.

 Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672) was one of the Early American poets who expressed her Puritan beliefs and her sufferings in a realistic and charming manner. Her first collection of poems “The Tenth Muse” was published without her knowledge in 1650.The remaining poems were published in 1678 after her death. Her poems deal with transitory nature of life and pleasures and her strong faith in God. John Cotton was a senior respected colonial minister who was famous for his sermons. He insisted on enlightened interpretation of the scripture and refused to separate faith and action entirely from one another. 

Mary Rowlandson, later Mary Talcott (1637-1711) in her story  ”The sovereignty and goodness of God: Being a narrative of the captivity and restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson” offers a moving account of her captivity by Algonquians and her suffering and how her children and relatives were murdered by the natives. After three months she was freed in return for ransom while she had lost her children sold as property during her captivity. She was the first woman to write a narrative in captivity. She believed in God’s grace and predestination when she wrote: “I know, O Lord, that Thy judgments are right, and that Thou in faithfulness hast afflicted me.” Rowland’s narrative contains recurrent images of depression and persistent anxiety though she considers such a state of affliction as a punishment from God and she surrenders to the will of God with strong Puritan faith. 

  Edward Taylor(1642-1729) a Puritan poet and minister believed in Calvin’s theories of sinfulness and damnation of all men and in the salvation of a few who are elected by God’s grace. His poems are in the metaphysical tradition of George Herbert and John Donne. His poems are an illustration of “the mystical union with God.” His striking metaphors and sense of mysticism resemble the style of Emily Dickinson’s poetry. As a strict Congregationalist, he opposed the plan of union between Congregational and Presbyterian churches. His theology resembled that of his Boston contemporaries like Michael Wiggleworth, Cotton Mather and his lifelong friend, Samuel Sewall. He spent his life as Minister at Westfield. He was a scholar, master of three languages and an able historian. His poems fall into four groups. The first “God’s determinations touching His Elect” is a long dramatic allegory written before 1690. The second collection of 217 poems “Preparatory meditations before my Approach to the Lord’s Supper” was written between 1682 and 1725. The third group comprises miscellaneous poems in which familiar objects were used to express metaphysical themes. The work is the “Metrical History” an unpublished poem of 430 pages in manuscript which describes the history of the Protestant Church. His verbs are strong, and his imagery is vigorous. His poems glorify the Christian experience like a sermon. Taylor used Biblical references and stories from testament. “Christographia” is a collection of sermons about the human and divine natures of Christ. Taylor left much of his verse unpolished and uncorrected. It seems that he had not intended his poems for the public evaluation. Taylor’s works were bequeathed to Yale University by a descendant in 1883. Only after 1939 a significant selection of his poems were published and edited by Thomas H. Johnson.

Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) was one of the great revivalist preachers, philosophers and ministers of the Massachusetts colony and was one of the founders of the a new religious revival movement known as the Great Awakening in during 1730’s. In 18^th century America, the population was growing in Massachusetts and Connecticut areas and people got used to more luxuries as there was rapid growth in trade and scientific progress. As a reaction to the age of reason and science and to revive the Puritan faith in God, many ministers gave sermons to inspire people’s faith in religion and moral principles. Jonathan Edward’s sermon “Sinners in the hands of an angry God” given in front of a congregation in Enfield, Connecticut was one of the most famous sermons in American history. He was appalled by the diluted form of Puritanism known as “Halfway Covenant”. He tried to reinstate a severe brand of Puritanism and emphasized that the path to salvation lay in the religious feelings and consciousness of sin and repentance and God’s forgiveness. Though he was interested in science he believed that science reveals the natural wonders created by God. He was the founder of “New England Theology” and a precursor of transcendentalism in his negation of the Hebraic God in favor of an infinite being. The concept of cosmic god and beauty of creation was explained by Edwards in an impressive way. To him, as to Ruskin, nature was another book of the Lord, a vast open Bible revealing divine messages. He delivered more than a thousand sermons. With a style remarkable for precision he became a very influential writer of the colonial period. His ability to combine religious intensity with intellectual rigor and moral earnestness, the cosmic sweep of his theological vision and his emphasis on faith and love and his uncompromising stand against all forms of idolatry made his works very popular and well-known.

 His well-known works are : “Sinners in the hands of an angry God”, “The end for which God created the world”, The life of David Brainerd”, “religious affections”, “The manner of seeking salvation”, “Freedom of will”, and “pressing into the kingdom of God” etc. All works of Edwards including his unpublished works are available on line through the Jonathan Edwards center at Yale University website. The followers of Jonathan Edwards and his disciples are called “New Light Calvinist Ministers” as opposed to the traditional “Old Light Calvinist Ministers.”

 Michael Wigglesworth (1631-1705) was a Puritan minister, doctor and poet who emigrated to America and settled in New Haven. He preached at Charlestown and later worked as pastor at Malden till his death. In his long poem “The day of Doom; a poetical description of the great and last Judgment” (1662) written in ballad measure, he described the horrors of the last Judgment.  His other poems are “A short discourse on Eternity” and “Vanities of Vanity”. He tried a variety of styles and modes to express his theological vision and feelings. 

The Puritan views and ideology influenced the American culture and tradition very much. Religious freedom, individual effort, hard work, collective responsibility, emphasis on universal education, simple and austere life without caring for pomposity and sensual pleasures, self-control and preference to moral virtues over elaborate rituals are some of the characteristics inherited from Puritans by the later generations. In literary style they preferred a simple, plain style devoid of ornate imagery with traditional Biblical allusions. They gave importance to keen observation, realistic information and historical precision. Most of them wrote on religious themes filled with devotion and strong faith in divine justice and grace. One cannot receive salvation through good deeds and virtues alone. Their actions should be supported by faith in God. Nature to them is another book of God which reveals God’s mysterious wonders and divine principles.

 They brought about a new religious awakening and tried to link political affairs and with rigid, religious rules which brought about many divisions and dissensions among themselves like Quakers (who opposed wars, rejected rituals and formal creeds and an ordained ministry) and Deists (who rejected religious concept of revelation and believed that reason and observation of natural world help in realization of divine presence). Still most of them have assimilated the Puritan virtues and background with suitable relaxations and exemptions. The Puritan concept of cosmic God and the harmonious relationship between religion and science later influenced many writers like Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Hooker, Washington Irving, H.W. Longfellow, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Emerson and Thoreau. Though many persons are critical about Puritan beliefs, the legacy left by this movement continues in American ethos which mainly relies on liberty of conscience, self-reliance, freedom of religion and hard work to achieve economic success with a noble mission and goal.

“You can’t understand America without understanding the Puritans. In many ways, we’re still living out their legacy in ways that are good and bad.” – Pete Buttigieg.

“The Puritan’s sense of priorities in life was one of their greatest strengths. Putting God first and valuing everything else in relation to God was a recurrent Puritan theme.’ – Leland Ryken

“By all means read the Puritans, they are worth more than all the modern stuff put together.’ – Charles Spurgeon

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           31st August, 2020                       Somaseshu Gutala