TO Dear N.S.

                    

                                         

    

    In spite of growing years, in you I find

    No change in attitude and mind;

    Ever active and dynamic you seem

    Ever humane, helpful and happy I deem

    Unchanging like bright solar rays

    Bringing warmth and illuminating days;    

    Right from boyhood you toiled hard and kept pace

    With changing times and learnt new methods  and ways;

    In your thirst for learning new skills is seen

   Your flexible approach and insight keen;

   Your service testifies brilliant record

   Of solving many issues without discord;

   In every task you played an active part

   Your friendly words, courage and hope impart;

   For justice and fair cause, you always fought

  And helped your retired colleagues a lot;  

   Ever ready to help others in every crisis

   You never lagged behind, but tried to solve with ease.  

   A happy, healthy life to you always

   May God give you, with humble heart I pray.

         

  2nd January, 2020                                Somaseshu Gutala

THE TALE OF SUDAMA

 

           I felt too happy to see my dearest mate

           Ruling Dwaraka like the lord of heavenly gods

           His royal splendor and pomp I never imagined

           Who once did move with me like a rustic lad

           Who would believe that I, a poor begging Brahmin

           Had the fortune of making friends with him?

           Those happy bygone times I never forget

           When I had moved with Krishna in the forest retreat

           Of sage Sandeepan great to learn the Vedic lore;

           He never displayed his royal pride and power

           He moved with ease regaling all inmates

           Playing on his flute enchanting melodies;

           None thought about his mysterious powers

           Neither did he flaunt or brag glorious feats;

           But ever remained a playful friendly companion to all;

          While we struggled with precise tones of Vedic hymns 

          He mastered effortlessly whatever he heard

          As if he knew already all by heart;

          We gaped with wonder at his erudition and wisdom vast

          Whatever he did no trace of strain or stress was seen

          Everything he did in a sportive way performing best

          In his ever- cheerful countenance, I found

         A mystic attraction with fascinating eyes

         His dusky complexion beamed like sapphire

         His lovely figure in all joy and love inspire

        Surely something divine in him concealed

        Though simple and innocent he did act and speak

        Though some ill-speak of him as a juggling lad;

       Can a small child suck out the life of a demoness

       Who tried to kill him with her poisoned milk?

        Can a small child break the gigantic flying wheel?

        Can a small child slay the wild demon-horse

        That gaped his jaws to devour and kick him down?

        Can a small child burst open the monstrous python’s guts

        And free his captured cowherd friends and cattle alive?

        Can a small child kill a charging bull with menacing horns

        With threatening red eyes to gore all kids? 

        Can a small child break open the monstrous stork

        Rushing with wide open beak spitting fire?

        Can a small child swallow the raging forest fire

       To save his cattle and mates shouting for help?        

        Can a small child unfold the cosmic wonders

        Within his mouth while his mother stood dazed with surprise?

        Can a small child uplift the lofty mountain on his finger

         Just like a ball and stand steadfast for seven days

         For his people to seek refuge with their kids and cows

         And subjugate Indra’s vain wounded pride?

         Can a small child dance with tiny feet on poisonous hoods

         Of a mighty serpent and drive him out of the village pond

        To save his people and cattle from its poisonous breath?

        Can a small child assume the forms of all his friends and cattle

        For one full year and gladden the hearts of parents

        At Gokul when Lord Brahma kidnapped all creatures

        And hid them in a cave to show off his divine

        Supremacy, but felt humbled by the tiny tot?

        How Krishna dived into the river at once

        And brought back to life our teacher’s son

        Drowned long ago from struck by cruel fate!

        Dire death himself humbly cringed before him

        And gave back the child alive as in a dream;

       The most precious gift who can give but he

       Who can transcend both life and death? 

       Surely my friend God in human form I trust

       Blessed are Gopis who shared with him all they possess

       And tasted bliss supreme in his presence;

       Blessed is Brindavan where Krishna danced with them;

      With every maid manifesting in various forms;

      Blessed are the waters of Yamuna where Krishna swam;

      Blessed are the birds, cattle, hills and trees

      That felt the touch of Krishna’s lotus feet;

      No wonder to know that Nanda’s dearest friend

      Rolled with mad ecstasy shedding tears of joy

      On foot-prints of Krishna on Yamuna’s sands;

      And yet my friend tricks me to treat him

      Like a human being with playful innocent looks;

      How foolish I was when I went with my friend to get

      Tall kusha grass for our preceptor great

     When I bluffed saying my teeth chattered in wintry night

     While munching peas in stealth to quench my hunger

     Letting my friend alone to starve with hunger!

     I hang my head in shame for lying even to God;

     He with whom I did chat in casual ways

     Ignorant of his form resplendent and divine

      Now shines like radiant sun of Yadav clan

     Lord of Dwaraka, the richest island in western seas

     Honoured by all, including gods, sages and saints;

     While I, a Brahmin poor with a family large

     Wander from door to door to earn my daily bread

     To feed my kids burning with hunger

     Though I care for my household gods and daily rituals

     Offering ablutions to sun and sacred fire;

     Never can I forget Krishna’s beautiful form

     He shines like a moving cloud crowned with rainbow tints

     Beaming with gems and dressed in yellow silken robes;

     Arousing in every heart pure devotion and joy

     Pure spiritual bliss and love incarnate

     His form ever resides within my bosom

     Never thought of visiting his royal palace

    Though oft compelled by my spouse to seek his help

    At least to save my starving children;

    Besides who would believe a beggar like me

   With shabby beard and torn dress

   A friend of Krishna whom three worlds obey

   The guards would mock at me as a man insane

   Laughing at my entreaties vain;

  Abject sense of shame and fear darkened my brow

  As I approached with fluttering heart the royal gate

  No worthy gift I had but a knot of stale beaten rice;

  As if by grace of God, my friend himself came out

  Seeing my face-- with arms outstretched smiling with joy

  Hugged this poor Brahmin’s emaciated form;

  He led me warmly clasping through royal corridors

  Decked with paintings and marble sculptures carved

  To the royal chamber where his spouses dwelt;

  My mind felt dizzy with unbelievable delight 

  He offered his best throne for me to sit at ease

  As he with his chief royal queen washed my feet

  With sandal-scented water spouting through silver vase

  And honoured me with garlands and silken upper cloth

  Offered me syrups to quench my thirst and weariness;

 As his spouses waved cool breeze with pea-cock feathered fans;

 Dumbfounded did I stare as if I had a dream too far

 Above my status; while Krishna recounted his student days

 Fondly recounting the happy times we spent;

Of witty incidents and pranks we played

No change did I perceive in him and his talk;

The royal status and power did not vitiate

 His noble nature and simple, friendly manners ;

With jovial looks he asked me what gift I had brought

As I did shrink with shame as to what to reveal

He searched and searched till he did see

And untied the knot of my upper cloth

As I stood shuddering with fear and utter shame;

He hugged me for my poor gift and thanked me a lot

Munching with great relish a handful of beaten rice

While his queens stared with wonder and confounded looks;

His selfless, pure love immersed me in bliss

Krishna’s overwhelming love more precious than heaven

I did forget my task for which I came

Nothing I wished, nothing I required

Absorbed in Krishna’s thoughts forgot myself

Thanking him profuse, his palace reluctant I left;

Unwilling to miss his gracious form benign;

Like a soul leaving the gates of paradise;

And sinking back to gloomy abyss mired in poverty;

But, lo! My humble hut nowhere I saw

And there a golden mansion fit for princes to dwell

I mused whether I lost my way or reached wrong abode

My spouse and children dressed in cosy silken robes

Hailed me as I stood confused with wonder

Shocked and dazed I stood motionless and mute;

No words I found to thank my kindest lord

Who showered heavenly affluence unsought

On me a worthless begging Brahmin poor;

Nothing more I desire, Lord of three worlds!

Let me dedicate my life to Thee

Musing on thy lotus feet and holy name

My whole body thrills to think of thy sweetest form.

                              *********************

   20th December, 2020                                   Somaseshu Gutala

Note:

Lord Sri Krishna and Sudama studied in Sage Sandeepan’s ashram near Avanti.  It is said that Krishna and Bal Ram stayed here for 64 days to learn 64 vidyas . As a boy Krishna faced many dangers from his uncle Kamsa, Madura’s ruler. He sent many demons and tried to kill him. Krishna killed many demons like Putana, Shakatasura, Aghasura, Keshi and Bakasura etc. Even he subjugated the arrogance of Lord Indra by saving his people from the wrath of Indra by lifting a hill called Goverdhan. He taught a moral lesson to Brahma who prided himself as the creator of the universe by assuming the forms of cattle and gopas when Brahma kidnapped all cattle and gopas and hid them in a cave for one whole year.

 When all his schemes failed, Kamsa sent his counsellor, Akrura to invite Krishna and Balaram to a sacrifice (Dhanur Yagam) conducted by him. After killing Kamsa and installing Kamsa’a father Ugrasena as the king of Madhura, Krishna set free his parents, Devaki and Vasudeva from the prison. Later as per tradition he went to Sandeepan’s Ashram with his brother to learn Vedas and other shastras. After completing his studies, he shifted from Madhura to Dwaraka to save his people from the Magadha ruler Jarasandh who invaded Yadava kingdom seventeen times. There he ruled Yadava clan along with his brother, with the fabulous city of Dwaraka as capital which was constructed by Vishwakarma in a short span of only two days. Sudama well-known as Kuchela for his shabby appearance and torn clothes, led a life of poverty burdened with a large family. His wife, Susheela, a good housewife urged Sudama to go and meet his boyhood friend, Krishna and beg him for help to feed his starving family. Sudama, after many entreaties, reluctantly left for Dwaraka doubting whether Krishna would recognize him who was so poor that he could not carry a worthy gift for his friend. But to his utter astonishment and surprise he was well-received with royal honours and was showered with warmest affection and respect. Though poor, Sudama was rewarded for his intense devotion and selfless dedication to God.

 The episode of Sudama reveals the selfless devotion and Sakhya Bhakti (treating God as one’s closest friend) and asking for no favours from God. In return this story also reveals Krishna’s noblest example of a friend who treated him with utmost respect and affection without considering his status and position. Though Sudama had not asked him for any help, he generously gave him royal luxuries and immense wealth.  God’s boundless mercy and compassion are seen in this episode. This episode is the best example of an ideal friendship unparalleled and unprecedented and nowhere found in any age and place.  

 

    1.  Sudama--- Classmate of Krishna at the Gurukul of Sandeepan.

    2.  Kamsa --   King and uncle of Madhura of Vrishni clan.

    3. Putana—a demoness sent by Kamsa to breastfeed Krishna with poisoned milk. Krishna sucked out her life and killed her. Putana represnts enormous human ignorance which was purified by the touch of God.     

 4. Wheel-demon – Shakatasura, a demon who hid behind the cart to kill Krishna. He lifted child high into the air, Krishna increased his weight and and broke the back of the flying demon. He represents the burden of past and present evil tendencies and attachments accumulated by human being. 

 5.    Bull-demon – Kamsa sent Arishtasura  as a bull to kill Krishna. Krishna caught the bull by horns and killed the wild demon by swirling him in the air and dashing            him to the ground. He represents disregard for religion and cheating mind.

  6.  Keshi, the horse-demon – Sent by Kamsa, Keshi opened his mouth and tried to attack Krishna. Krishna caught his two legs and threw him to a great distance.When he opened his mouth Krishna thrust his arm into Keshi’s mouth and Keshi was choked to death. Keshi represents false pride and egoism.

7. Aghasura – elder brother of Putana and Bakasura. Aghasura assumed the form of an eight mile - long serpent. The gopas entered the mouth of the serpent mistaking it to be a cave. Krishna entered into Aghasura’s stomach and enlarged his size to such an extent that Aghasura struggled for breath and his body burst open resulting in death.  Aghasura represents cruelty and violence.

8. Bakasura – A demon sent by Kamsa. Assuming the form of a big stork he swallowed  Krishna. But forced by the intense heat he disgorged Krishna. The Lord grabbed Bakasura’s beak and split it into two killing him on the spot. Bakasura represents deceipt and wickedness.

9. Kaliya – A giant serpent who occupied the waters of the Kalindi river by force and turned the pond into a dangerous place by its poisonous breath. To protect gopas, Krishna jumped into the river and danced on its hoods till the giant serpent felt repentant and was willing to leave the pond along with its family to stay in Ramanaka Dweepa. The multi-hooded Kaliya represents numerous desires and egoistic pride.

10. Nanda’s friend – refers to Akrura, son of Swaphalka of Vrishni clan and was the chief counsellor of Kamsa. He was an uncle of Krishna and was sent by Kamsa to invite Krishna and Bala Ram to Madhura.  He is one of the noble devotees of Krishna.

                          ######################################

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

Origin and Development of Essay (Part-II)

Samuel Coleridge 

                       

William Hazlitt                   

 

      

Thomas Carlyle

                                           

                            

             

    

At the beginning of the nineteenth century the periodical essay gave place to critical essay. It had little concern with social and personal topics, its main content, being literary and other critical matters. The best known of these reviews are “Edinburgh” and ‘Quarterly”. In journals like “Blackwood’s magazine”, “London magazine” and “Fraser’s magazine” miscellaneous types of essays (creative, critical, entertaining and informative) were contributed by eminent essayists like Hazlitt, De Quincy, Coleridge, Thackeray and Carlyle.

 William Hazlitt (1778-1830) influenced by concise social commentary of Addison’s “spectator” and personal tone of Montaigne became a celebrated writer of familiar essays using conversational diction and personal tone. Often beginning with an aphorism, his essays are characterised by informal diction and emotional tone. He contributed essays to Leigh Hunts” Examiner” and worked as a columnist for “Edinburgh review”. His personal essays collected in volumes of “The Round Table” Table-Talk” and “The Plain speaker” are his finest works. He wrote critical essays in volumes like “Shakespeare’s characters” (1817), “Lectures on English Poets” (1812), “A view of the English Stage” (1818), “The spirit of the age” (1825) and “The Biography of Napoleon Bonaparte” (1826-1830).

    Leigh Hunt(1784-1859) wrote hundreds of essays but he was first and foremost a journalist and deliberately chose such topics that would appeal to the man in the street. He wrote essays in a conversational manner reminiscent of fireside talk.

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) is one of the eminent critics who applied principles of philosophy and psychology to literary criticism. He introduced the concept of the organic theory of art and the superiority of imagination over reason and fancy. His book “Biographia Literaria” is a collection of thoughts dealing with the philosophy of Kant, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, and Schelling. This book also contains Coleridge’s distinction between Imagination and fancy and the famous critical concept of the “willing suspension of disbelief.” The later chapters of the book deal with the nature of poetry and on the quality of Wordsworth’s poetry. He used plain and simple language with a conversational tone. Coleridge was influenced by German Romantic writers like Schiller and philosophers like Immanuel Kant. His famous prose works are: Lectures on Politics and religion (1795), Lay Sermons (1816) and “Lectures and Notes on Shakespeare and Other English Poets” (1811-1812) and “The table talk” (1836) and “The Constitution of the Church and State (1839). 

Thomas Carlyle(1795-1881) was a prolific writer who used a strong passionate style with unusual syntax, coinages, and rhetoric. He was also influenced by German writers like Goethe, Schiller and Kant. His famous works are: Sartor Resartus (1836), critical and miscellaneous essays (1838), “On heroes, hero-worship and the heroic’ (1841), “Past and the Present”(1843), Frederick, the great(1865) in four volumes and “reminiscences (1881). He emphasised the cult of a great man as a national moral leader. Carlyle became famous for his three-volume magnum opus “French revolution” published in 1837. When his friend John Stuart Mill accidentally burnt his first work in 1834, Carlyle re-wrote this book with the help of notes he had with him. In this book he described the historic struggle of French revolution that happened between 1774 and 1795. The three volumes were titled as “The Bastille”, “The Constitution” and “The Guillotine” respectively. Charles Dickens inspired by this book wrote his famous historical novel “A Tale of Two Cities” in 1859. Carlyle’s style seems idiosyncratic with peculiar features like Germanized compounds, new coinages, frequent use of italics and ellipsis, use of many allusions, frequent use of inversions and oratorical style. But his knowledge was very wide covering many subjects like mathematics, science, philosophy and economics. Readers will appreciate his passionate style, depth of knowledge and his sarcastic tone. 

Charles Lamb (1775-1834) often called “the prince of essayists” published most of his essays under the pseudonym “Elia” in “London magazine” and later brought them out in book form as “essays of Elia” in 1823 and as ‘last essays of Elia” in 1833. Charles Lamb published “Tales from Shakespeare” in 1807 in collaboration with his sister, Mary Lamb. In 1808 he published “Specimens of English drama who lived about the time of Shakespeare” which show his critical observations. Charles Lamb was influenced by Elizabethan dramatists and Elizabethan writers like Thomas Browne, Richard Burton and Thomas Fuller. His style shows typical Elizabethan characteristics like Latinate diction, archaic and obsolete words, allusions and quotations from various classical writers. So, his style seems quaint and old-fashioned. But his friendly and genial attitude, variety in theme and poetic descriptions mixed with humour, gentle wit and pathos and a sense of nostalgia for the past lend a peculiar charm to his essays.  Most of his essays deal with events and characters he came across in his own life. His keen observation and perceptiveness along with his verbal felicity made his essays popular and interesting. His essays like “The South-sea House’, “dream children”, “A dissertation upon a roast pig”, and “Old China” show his mastery of form and style. Charles lamb published “Tales from Shakespeare” in 1807 in collaboration with his sister, Mary Lamb. 

John Ruskin (1819-1900) was a famous art critic, social thinker, painter, philosopher and social reformer. He had a wide knowledge about subjects like geology, architecture, literature and Botany. In his essays he revealed the connection between nature, art, environment and society. In his book” Modern painters” in five volumes (1843-1860) argued that modern painters in contrast to old masters are superior in the art of landscape. He defended the works of J.W.M. Turner which provide a profound insight into natural forces and atmospheric effects. He also emphasised on symbolism in art expressed through nature. In “Stones of Venice” published in three volumes between 1851 and 1853 was an overview of the history of architecture in Venice. He tried to show the intimate connection between art, architecture and morality. He tried to show art as an ethical teacher and moral yardstick of a civilised society. He argued that Gothic style though not so technically perfect as the renaissance style, its roughness conveyed emotion and reverence for God. Renaissance architecture is cold and emotionless created for man’s own glory while Gothic architects are created for the glory of God. In “Sesame and Lilies” published in 1865 Ruskin discusses the qualities of and duties of men and women in Victorian times. He said that women are moral guides to their families and hence they should be well-educated. “Unto this last” was published between August and December, 1860. He criticised the capitalist economists of the 18^th and 19^th centuries and the destructive effects of industrialism on natural world. Mahatma Gandhi was very much influenced by this book and translated it into Gujarati in 1908 under the title of “Sarvodaya.” He formulated many of his social and economic ideas based on Ruskin’s views. Ruskin used formal and literary style in “Modern painters” and a picturesque style in “Stones of Venice.” He was influenced by the poetic prose of 19^th century writers like Charles Lamb, Thomas de Quincey and Sir Walter Scott. He also derived inspiration from the Bible and the blank verse of Wordsworth’s poetry. His perception, keen observation and emotional style along with his wide knowledge marks him as a unique writer. 

Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894) was a famous essayist, novelist, travel writer and short story writer. He evolved his own style after experimenting with various types of styles he observed in other great writers like Hazlitt, Lamb, Sir Thomas Browne, Defoe, Hawthorne, Montaigne, Baudelaire and Oberman who lighted his ways of composing essays and other writings. He studied with keen Interest the Bible and the writings of Bunyan, Shakespeare, Scott, Whitman, Spenser, Meredith and Dumas.  The fifteenth century French writers  captivated his attention and he wrote essays and short stories based on French themes such as “Victor Hugo’s Romances”, “Providence and the Guitar” and “The Treasure of Franchard.” Stevenson tried to express his thoughts with precision, sincerity, elegance and simplicity with characteristic frankness. In his style we can see a perfect accord between sense and sound with a masculine vigour. By his study of music he found that the ideal of prose should be harmony and of poetry the melody. He was impressed by the musical nature of Latin and used sonorous Latin words appropriately. The handling of old words in new combinations, discerning use of adjectives, apt similes and effective use of repetition are some of the features of hi style. In his essays like  “Technical elements of style in Literature” and “Books which have influenced me” he voiced his opinions and views on style. He was admired by great writers like marcel Proust, Arthur Conan Doyle, Louis Borges and Bertolt Brecht. His travel stories influenced Joseph Conrad and henry James. After his trip with Stevenson, Sir Walter Scott wrote his famous novel “The Pirate” in

Stevenson’s famous books are “An Island Voyage” (1878), “travels with a donkey in Cavennes”(1879), “Treasure Island”(1883) and “Strange Case of Mr. Jekyll and Hyde”(1886) and of course a number of essays on various topics dealing with nature, authors, and experiences of the common world. Though he experimented with various styles, his creative imagination and his talent for perfect rhythm and harmonious combination of sounds made him a great prose writer of all times. 

In modern times a number of journals, periodicals and daily newspapers afford an unlimited scope for the essay. Most of the modern essayists use racy, conversational style coupled with interesting and amusing characteristics of their own. The best of essayists follow the manner of lamb and are subjective in selection of topics and style. The modern essays provide a scrutinising and critical approach towards judging social, political and cultural values. It has an unlimited scope in selection of themes. The themes are as varied as life itself. The modern essayist tries his best to present his views in the simplest manner possible so that even a lay reader can understand him. The style is simple though dignifies. His language is the language of everyday speech. There is no attempt at deliberate ornamentation. Wit and gentle humour are the leading charms of the modern essay. Informal speech rhythms and decent slang terms are allowed.  The eminent essayists of the modern period are : Robert Lynd, E.V.Lucas, A.G.Gardiner, G.K.Chesterton, Max Beerbohm, J.B.Priestley, Hillaire Belloc, Aldous Huxley, E.M.Forster, Bertrand Russell etc. of course there many other types of essays based on specific subjects like medicine, science, Engineering, Art, philosophy and other fields of knowledge. 

Through immense varieties of the English essay there runs a moral purpose which is sometimes boldly revealed and sometimes hidden behind humour and irony. The English essay is a serious form of literature. It is generally intended to edify rather than to entertain, whether it deals with social behaviour, books, science, politics or any other purpose. But Lamb and Hazlitt wrote not to reform or instruct their public but to interest and amuse them. This informal manner continued till the present time although serious subjects have come to be written in essay form. Indeed the essay has become a popular and easy-to-handle flexible popular literary medium (flexible in theme, style, length, tone and texture)  for all types of writers, journalists, reviewers and newspaper columnists. In modern age, short story and essay are the most popular literary forms which provide useful information and satisfy people’s interests, feelings and thoughts and aspirations.

                          **************************

       14th December, 2020                    Somaseshu Gutala

Origin and Development of Essay in English (Part--I)

 

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682)

John Dryden (1631-1700)

Abraham Cowley (1618-1667)

Joseph Addison (1672-1719)

Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)

 The essay is a very flexible and free literary form through which one can express one’s ideas, feelings, thoughts and opinions without any constraints and limits. The length of an essay varies from one page to twenty or more pages depending on the range of the theme, content and ideas. At the beginning the essay was treated as not a great artistic medium. Most writers preferred epic, lyrical and dramatic forms to express their ideas in verse. But in the writings of classical writers like Cicero, Seneca, Plutarch, the tone and style of the essay are perceptible. According to oxford English dictionary Ben Jonson first used the word “essayist” in 1609. Sr William Cornwallis published essays in 1600 and 1617. Robert Burton (1577-1641) and Sir Thomas Browne were other essayists of this period.  The compositions of University Wits like John Lyly, Robert Greene, Thomas Lodge, Thomas Nashe have some of the features of novel and that of an essay. Philip Sydney’s prose work “Apology for poesy” has some semblance of an essay though of uncertain style. Ben Jonson’s critical comments also have some features of the essay. But the style of Elizabethan writers was somewhat rhetorical with ornate style, Latin words and phrases and complicated long winding style with poetic rhythm.

No accurate and precise definition of the term “essay” is seen as it is a very flexible and free prose form. Dr. Johnson defined it as “a loose sally (sudden out rush) of the mind, an irregular, undigested piece, not a regular and orderly performance.” The oxford English Dictionary explains it as a “composition of moderate length on any particular subject or branch of a subject; originally implying want of finish, but now said of a composition more or less elaborate in style, though limited in range.”  From this it is clear that the essay is limited in its scope and does not cover all aspects. But its thematic range is very wide. One can write on any subject and express ideas and thoughts without any restraint. It is a composition not devoted to narrative and the essayist’s role is that of a social philosopher, critic, friend or guide.

The essay can be distinguished more easily by its manner than by its matter. An essay is comparatively short and incomplete in the sense that it treats the subject only in outline or only a branch or division of some greater theme or subject. It can evoke, of course in a narrow range, various types of feelings and emotions. According to W.H.Hudson, “The true essay is essentially personal.” It is subjective and belongs to the literature of self-expression. According to Alexander Smith, the essay resembles the lyric. It is intensely subjective, an expression of moods, likes and dislikes of the writer. 

The origin of the essay is attributed to the Roman writers like Cicero and Seneca whose epistles are regarded as essays rather than letters. Plutarch’s “Moralia” belongs to the same category, being a collection of essays on moral subjects. Montaigne at first used the word “Essais” which means “an attempt” for his collection of writings. He did not deal with the topics elaborately, but made an attempt towards the elucidation of the subject from his own individual point of view. His principal object is to portray himself.  Thus, Montaigne is the first writer who used the essay as a systematic art form. He may be called the father of the subjective or personal essay. He used the essay as a means of self-discovery. The writings of University Wits like Lyly, Robert Greene, Thomas Lodge, and Thomas Nashe had some traces of novel and also features of the essay. Ben Jonson’s critical works also show some of the features of the essay.

The essay form found true expression in the popular essays of Francis Bacon (1561-1626) who is considered as the “Father of English essay.” He transplanted the essay form in England, but he followed a line different that of Montaigne. He wrote on a variety of themes in a laconic style and his essays read like strings of mottoes, proverbs or moralistic sermons on conduct with factual observations and precepts of worldly wisdom. His essays do not portray the man himself but his counsel, civil and moral, in short and crisp sentences which read like aphorisms. So, his essays may be called aphoristic essays with an impersonal or objective touch. They say what they have to say directly without any preface or introduction. His sentences are brief and short and come down like the strokes of a hammer. Bacon regarded the essay as “a receptacle for detached thoughts”. So he called his essays as “dispersed meditations.” His purpose was not to preach ideal morality but to give valuable guidance on a variety of subjects drawn from day to day affairs of practical life. As a busy man of the world he jotted down his experiences and his views on man and life. That is why he defined his essays as “counsels civil and moral.” He used apt analogies, metaphors, similes, classical allusions, scientific facts antithesis and balance to make his statements read like proverbs.  His style is called aphoristic with clarity, precision, brevity and directness. His essays are impersonal, objective and didactic in nature giving advice on civil and moral themes. Bacon published his first volume of ten essays in 1597 and his last volume of 58 essays in 1625. According to Legouis, the French critic, “These essays are the classics of English prose.”

 Abraham Cowley is deemed as the connecting link between Bacon’s essays and the succeeding 17^th century periodical essays. While Bacon’s essays are aphoristic and impersonal, Cowley’s essays are intimate and personal. Sir Thomas Brown’s “Religio Medici” is a classic prose written in 1635 (published in 1643) when he was just thirty years old. It reveals personal reflections on religion mixed with scientific reasoning, faith and scepticism. He used his wide knowledge of classics and theology to prove his views. His style is ornate, Latinate, sonorous, and rich mixed with wit and subtle humour. Both Thomas Cowley and Thomas Browne tried to be more personal like Montaigne in their essays. 

 In Restoration age, there were many prose writers like John Locke, William Temple, Lord Halifax and John Dryden.  Dryden developed a lucid professional style relying on patterns and rhythms of the everyday speech. He wrote in precise, direct and lucid manner with force and vigour. His prose works like “Of dramatic poesy (1667) and “Preface to fables” (1700) reveal a definite progress in the development of the English essay as a means of literary criticism. As a translator he developed an easy manner of what he called paraphrase and he made translated the works of many ancient writers like Homer, Lucretius, Horace, Ovid, Juvenal, Boccaccio, Geoffrey Chaucer etc. His translation of “The Aeneid” is considered as perfect. 

A periodical essay is an essay published in a magazine or journal as a part of series. The eighteenth century is considered as the great age of the periodical essay. Joseph Addison created memorable characters and portrayed the eighteenth century class society, its manners and fashions in a simple, straight and natural style free from extravagant expressions without obscurities and superfluities. He used the language of the contemporary clubs and coffee houses avoiding vulgarity. Addison tried to “enliven morality with wit and to temper wit with morality” setting a model for a decent and refined conduct of a gentleman. His essays show the manners and attitudes of his age. Addison was meticulous and elaborate in the presentation of details and his essays are intended to be “light in tone but weighty in influence.” He brought simplicity, clarity, good manners and elegance to the essay. He contributed nearly 42 essays for the Tatler, a magazine edited by Richard Stele. In “The Spectator” started which lasted from 1711 to 1712, Addison took a leading part and contributed 274 essays. Addison also assisted Steele with “The Guardian” which lasted from March, 1713 to October, 1713. Addison and Stele also gave the essay greater attractiveness and vitality by catering to a much wider circle of readers having a more varied range of interested then others.

 

 Dr. Samuel Johnson, the famous critic and lexicographer, wrote nearly 208 essays from 1750 to 1752 for “The Rambler. His style is often ponderous, lofty and abstract. His tone is mainly didactic, serious and concerned with universal human anxieties and frustrations. He wrote 104 essays in a lighter and casual way in the manner of Addison and Stele in “The idler” in the weekly journal “The Universal chronicle”. These essays are noted for their refinement of English language. In his “Lives of the poets” he expressed his views on the writings of authors like Dryden, Milton, Swift, Thomas grey and Pope.

 Oliver Goldsmith, a contemporary of Samuel Johnson, wrote a series of “Chinese letters” from the perspective of a Chinese philosopher visiting England. These letters were later published in a single volume “The Citizen of the World” in 1762. His character sketches are remarkable for their simplicity, grace and gentle humour.  These essays show vivid and rich human detail and his felicitous style.  He continued the tradition of Addison and Stele using a simple, conversational and lucid style spiced with wit and humour. He was as much inclined as Addison to comment on social behaviour and his attitude was more humane than that of Addison.

The essayists of this period sketched certain type of human characters with specific qualities. They followed the method of the Greek philosopher Theophrastus and the Roman Seneca. The character sketches of various types of men and women are seen in the essays of Joseph hall, Thomas Overbury and John Earle. They are filled with realistic description, humour and satire. Addison used the middle style seasoned with wit and gentle irony to correct the defects and give friendly advice to the society. On the continent La Bruyere’s “Caracteres” was published in 1668. Sir Thomas Browne and Cowley also followed this trend in spirit and style though they tried to be more personal like Montaigne.

                          ****************************

   4th December, 2020                       Somaseshu Gutala