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| Francis Bacon (1561-1626) |
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| Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682) |
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| John Dryden (1631-1700) |
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| Abraham Cowley (1618-1667) |
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| Joseph Addison (1672-1719) |
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| Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) |
The essay is a very flexible and free literary
form through which one can express one’s ideas, feelings, thoughts and opinions
without any constraints and limits. The length of an essay varies from one page
to twenty or more pages depending on the range of the theme, content and ideas.
At the beginning the essay was treated as not a great artistic medium. Most
writers preferred epic, lyrical and dramatic forms to express their ideas in
verse. But in the writings of classical writers like Cicero, Seneca, Plutarch,
the tone and style of the essay are perceptible. According to oxford English
dictionary Ben Jonson first used the word “essayist” in 1609. Sr William
Cornwallis published essays in 1600 and 1617. Robert Burton (1577-1641) and Sir
Thomas Browne were other essayists of this period. The compositions of University Wits like John
Lyly, Robert Greene, Thomas Lodge, Thomas Nashe have some of the features of
novel and that of an essay. Philip Sydney’s prose work “Apology for poesy” has
some semblance of an essay though of uncertain style. Ben Jonson’s critical
comments also have some features of the essay. But the style of Elizabethan
writers was somewhat rhetorical with ornate style, Latin words and phrases and
complicated long winding style with poetic rhythm.
No accurate
and precise definition of the term “essay” is seen as it is a very flexible and
free prose form. Dr. Johnson defined it as “a loose sally (sudden out rush) of
the mind, an irregular, undigested piece, not a regular and orderly performance.”
The oxford English Dictionary explains it as a “composition of moderate length
on any particular subject or branch of a subject; originally implying want of
finish, but now said of a composition more or less elaborate in style, though
limited in range.” From this it is clear
that the essay is limited in its scope and does not cover all aspects. But its
thematic range is very wide. One can write on any subject and express ideas and
thoughts without any restraint. It is a composition not devoted to narrative
and the essayist’s role is that of a social philosopher, critic, friend or
guide.
The essay can be distinguished more easily by its manner than by its matter. An essay is comparatively short and incomplete in the sense that it treats the subject only in outline or only a branch or division of some greater theme or subject. It can evoke, of course in a narrow range, various types of feelings and emotions. According to W.H.Hudson, “The true essay is essentially personal.” It is subjective and belongs to the literature of self-expression. According to Alexander Smith, the essay resembles the lyric. It is intensely subjective, an expression of moods, likes and dislikes of the writer.
The origin
of the essay is attributed to the Roman writers like Cicero and Seneca whose
epistles are regarded as essays rather than letters. Plutarch’s “Moralia”
belongs to the same category, being a collection of essays on moral subjects.
Montaigne at first used the word “Essais” which means “an attempt” for his
collection of writings. He did not deal with the topics elaborately, but made
an attempt towards the elucidation of the subject from his own individual point
of view. His principal object is to portray himself. Thus, Montaigne is the first writer who used
the essay as a systematic art form. He may be called the father of the
subjective or personal essay. He used the essay as a means of self-discovery.
The writings of University Wits like Lyly, Robert Greene, Thomas Lodge, and
Thomas Nashe had some traces of novel and also features of the essay. Ben
Jonson’s critical works also show some of the features of the essay.
The essay
form found true expression in the popular essays of Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
who is considered as the “Father of English essay.” He transplanted the essay
form in England, but he followed a line different that of Montaigne. He wrote
on a variety of themes in a laconic style and his essays read like strings of
mottoes, proverbs or moralistic sermons on conduct with factual observations and
precepts of worldly wisdom. His essays do not portray the man himself but his counsel,
civil and moral, in short and crisp sentences which read like aphorisms. So,
his essays may be called aphoristic essays with an impersonal or objective
touch. They say what they have to say directly without any preface or
introduction. His sentences are brief and short and come down like the strokes
of a hammer. Bacon regarded the essay as “a receptacle for detached thoughts”.
So he called his essays as “dispersed meditations.” His purpose was not to
preach ideal morality but to give valuable guidance on a variety of subjects
drawn from day to day affairs of practical life. As a busy man of the world he
jotted down his experiences and his views on man and life. That is why he defined
his essays as “counsels civil and moral.” He used apt analogies, metaphors,
similes, classical allusions, scientific facts antithesis and balance to make
his statements read like proverbs. His
style is called aphoristic with clarity, precision, brevity and directness. His
essays are impersonal, objective and didactic in nature giving advice on civil
and moral themes. Bacon published his first volume of ten essays in 1597 and
his last volume of 58 essays in 1625. According to Legouis, the French critic,
“These essays are the classics of English prose.”
Abraham Cowley is deemed as the connecting link between Bacon’s essays and the succeeding 17th century periodical essays. While Bacon’s essays are aphoristic and impersonal, Cowley’s essays are intimate and personal. Sir Thomas Brown’s “Religio Medici” is a classic prose written in 1635 (published in 1643) when he was just thirty years old. It reveals personal reflections on religion mixed with scientific reasoning, faith and scepticism. He used his wide knowledge of classics and theology to prove his views. His style is ornate, Latinate, sonorous, and rich mixed with wit and subtle humour. Both Thomas Cowley and Thomas Browne tried to be more personal like Montaigne in their essays.
In Restoration age, there were many prose writers like John Locke, William Temple, Lord Halifax and John Dryden. Dryden developed a lucid professional style relying on patterns and rhythms of the everyday speech. He wrote in precise, direct and lucid manner with force and vigour. His prose works like “Of dramatic poesy (1667) and “Preface to fables” (1700) reveal a definite progress in the development of the English essay as a means of literary criticism. As a translator he developed an easy manner of what he called paraphrase and he made translated the works of many ancient writers like Homer, Lucretius, Horace, Ovid, Juvenal, Boccaccio, Geoffrey Chaucer etc. His translation of “The Aeneid” is considered as perfect.
A periodical
essay is an essay published in a magazine or journal as a part of series. The
eighteenth century is considered as the great age of the periodical essay.
Joseph Addison created memorable characters and portrayed the eighteenth century
class society, its manners and fashions in a simple, straight and natural style
free from extravagant expressions without obscurities and superfluities. He
used the language of the contemporary clubs and coffee houses avoiding
vulgarity. Addison tried to “enliven morality with wit and to temper wit with
morality” setting a model for a decent and refined conduct of a gentleman. His
essays show the manners and attitudes of his age. Addison was meticulous and
elaborate in the presentation of details and his essays are intended to be
“light in tone but weighty in influence.” He brought simplicity, clarity, good
manners and elegance to the essay. He contributed nearly 42 essays for the
Tatler, a magazine edited by Richard Stele. In “The Spectator” started which
lasted from 1711 to 1712, Addison took a leading part and contributed 274
essays. Addison also assisted Steele with “The Guardian” which lasted from
March, 1713 to October, 1713. Addison and Stele also gave the essay greater
attractiveness and vitality by catering to a much wider circle of readers
having a more varied range of interested then others.
Dr. Samuel Johnson, the famous critic and
lexicographer, wrote nearly 208 essays from 1750 to 1752 for “The Rambler. His
style is often ponderous, lofty and abstract. His tone is mainly didactic,
serious and concerned with universal human anxieties and frustrations. He wrote
104 essays in a lighter and casual way in the manner of Addison and Stele in
“The idler” in the weekly journal “The Universal chronicle”. These essays are
noted for their refinement of English language. In his “Lives of the poets” he
expressed his views on the writings of authors like Dryden, Milton, Swift,
Thomas grey and Pope.
Oliver Goldsmith, a contemporary of Samuel
Johnson, wrote a series of “Chinese letters” from the perspective of a Chinese
philosopher visiting England. These letters were later published in a single
volume “The Citizen of the World” in 1762. His character sketches are
remarkable for their simplicity, grace and gentle humour. These essays show vivid and rich human detail
and his felicitous style. He continued
the tradition of Addison and Stele using a simple, conversational and lucid
style spiced with wit and humour. He was as much inclined as Addison to comment
on social behaviour and his attitude was more humane than that of Addison.
The
essayists of this period sketched certain type of human characters with
specific qualities. They followed the method of the Greek philosopher
Theophrastus and the Roman Seneca. The character sketches of various types of
men and women are seen in the essays of Joseph hall, Thomas Overbury and John
Earle. They are filled with realistic description, humour and satire. Addison
used the middle style seasoned with wit and gentle irony to correct the defects
and give friendly advice to the society. On the continent La Bruyere’s
“Caracteres” was published in 1668. Sir Thomas Browne and Cowley also followed
this trend in spirit and style though they tried to be more personal like
Montaigne.
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4th December, 2020 Somaseshu Gutala
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