Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882)
Transcendentalism is a new philosophical and literary movement which brought significant changes in the American society between1830-1860. The term “transcendental” was first used by the German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, in his book “Critique of Pure reason” (1781 and 1787). In his reply to the skeptical philosophy of Locke, who insisted that intellect derives knowledge and experience through senses, Kant opined that very important class of ideas are acquired through intuitions of the mind which he denominated as transcendental forms. The term “Transcend” means to “go beyond one’s sensual perceptions.” It comes through intuition and imagination and not through logic or senses.
The transcendentalists believed that
everything in creation is a reflection of God. The physical world is the
doorway to God. People can use their intuition to see God in Nature and in
their minds. Feeling and intuition are superior to reason and intellect. They
advocated the idea of a personal God and thought that no intermediary is
necessary to get knowledge about God and spiritual insight. They embraced
idealism focusing on Nature and opposing materialism. They believed in
equality, individualism, self-reliance, integrity, optimism, self-confidence
and in subjective intuition over objective empiricism. Most of these people
settled in the area around Concord near Boston in Massachusetts.
It is a reaction against Unitarianism which
depended on rational thinking. It also opposed the Puritan concept of human
depravity and rigid adherence to religious norms and conventions. Emerson in
his essay “The American Scholar” says, “A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin
of little minds adored by little statesmen, philosophers and divines.” The
Unitarians tried to reconcile Locke’s empiricism with Christianity stating that
Christ’s miracles provide solid evidence for the truth of religion. Transcendentalists
admired Channing’s idea that human beings could become more like God. William
Ellery Channing (1780-1842) said that orthodox congregationalism as a religion
of fear. In his sermon “Unitarian Christianity’ (1819) he denounced the
conspiracy of ages against the liberty of Christians.
The transcendental
philosophy of Kant influenced the Transcendentalists to a large extent. The
Unitarian Minister and student of Harvard Divinity School, Henry Hedge (1805-1890)
organized the transcendental Club in 1836 of which George Ripley, Bronson
Alcott and Emerson (1803-1882) were prominent members. They organized nearly
thirty meetings between 1836 and 1840. Margaret Fuller, a transcendentalist and
woman’s rights activist edited the journal “The Dial” along with Emerson in
1840. Emerson disseminated his thoughts through his essays (two volumes, 1841
and 1844) and gave more than 1500 public lectures to spread the ideals of
transcendentalism stressing the need individuality, equality and freedom of
thinking without imitating other cultures. Many transcendentalist writers
contributed their articles to this journal. Thus they prepared the ground for
the first flowering of the American Renaissance producing great writers like
Walt Whitman, Herman Melville and Nathaniel Hawthorne.
Margaret
Fuller’s book “Woman in the nineteenth century” (1848) was the first feminist
manifesto. Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, another female transcendentalist, acted as
the business manager of the journal “The Dial” and also established the first
English language Kindergarten school in U.S. Another transcendentalist is
Louisa May Alcott (1832-1888) was an American novelist, short story writer and
poet. She was well-known for her novel “Little Women” (1868) and its sequels
“Little Men” (1871 Men” (1871) and “Jo’s Boys” (1886).
Many transcendentalists tried to explore and
experiment with new schemes of living to put their ideals into practice. Thoreau at
Walden Pond near Concord, Massachusetts, stayed for two years, two months and
two days (1845-1847) to show one can stay happily and peacefully with simple needs in
peaceful surroundings of nature. Bronson Alcott, Louis May Alcott’s father,
moved to Fruitlands Farmhouse in Harvard town along with his friend Charles
Lane in June 1843 to put his philosophical beliefs regarding community family into
action. Nearly twenty members lived in this community for six months following
the rules of shared labor, prohibition of animal products and abolition of
slavery. Louisa May gave a fictionalized account of this event in her story, “Transcendental wild oats.” George Ripley, an American Unitarian Minister and
journalist founded a Utopian community at Brook Farm in West Roxbury,
Massachusetts in 1841 to follow the transcendentalist principles. Ripley as a
social reformer believed in equality of all genders and races and was against
the cruel convention of slavery. This community was closed in 1847 due to
financial troubles.
During his European trip Emerson met Thomas
Carlyle in 1831. Carlyle’s view of “Natural Supernaturalism” that Nature,
including human beings have the power and authority which is traditionally
attributed to an independent deity, influenced Emerson. In his essay “American
Scholar”, Emerson reiterates that action along with Nature and the mind of the
past is essential to humane education. Emerson rejected the Unitarian argument
that miracles prove the truth of Christianity. The concepts of the love of
beauty, morality and the universal presence of God were taken by him from the
Romantic poets. Thus the influence of
Romantic poets with their subjective idealistic approach, contemplation of Nature
and individual attitude influenced transcendentalists.
The influence of Indian scriptures especially
that of The Bhagavadgita, Upanishads and Puranas is evident in many
transcendentalist writers. Emerson took keen interest in studying Indian poets
like Kalidasa and Indian philosophy during a greater part of his life from
1820-1870. His poem “Brahma” depicts the Upanishadic concept of God as all-
pervading pure and formless Brahman. He formulated the idea of the "Oversoul" as the absolute reality and basis of all existence; It is the spiritual base or essence of the ideal Nature and is imperfectly manifested in human beings. In the lines “The strong gods pine for my
abode….But, thou, meek lover of the good! Find me and turn thy back on heaven.”—Emerson
describes the Karma Yogi who performs actions without expecting any results.
Henry David Thoreau studied Hindu and Buddhist philosophy which influenced his
concept of pantheism that shows no distinction between human and natural world.
Thoreau in his book “Walden” wrote, “In the morning I bathe my intellect in the
stupendous and cosmogonal philosophy of the Bhagavatgita.”
Many
transcendentalists supported abolition of slavery, equality of races and women
suffrage. They infused an optimistic attitude with a positive outlook and
elevated man’s stature from that of a sinner to that of an aspiring soul with a
divine spark who can reach godly heights through introspection and pure
thoughts. They opposed materialistic attitude and defended the supremacy of
creative imagination and insight over dry reason and intellect. They stressed
that each country should evolve its own culture and literature without blind
imitation. They redefined the idea of religion as an individual affair directed
towards self-improvement and moral enlightenment. They criticized government,
organized religion, oppressive laws, and increasing industrialization and
sought reforms in education and labor laws. Thus one can say that
transcendentalism brought about a sweeping change in American society in many
fields like religion, culture, literature, politics and education. It laid the
foundation for the typical American dream of establishing a flourishing nation
with economic prosperity, democratic spirit and creative minds.
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14th September, 2020 Somaseshu Gutala
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