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| A town in Massachusetts |
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| Congregational church in Boston |
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| John Winthrop (1588-1649) |
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| Cotton Mather (1663-1728) |
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| Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672) |
Almost a decade after Pilgrims’ arrival, Puritans in large numbers migrated to North America in between 1630 and 1640. The first six Puritan colonies comprised Plymouth (1620), New Hampshire (1623), Massachusetts (1628), Connecticut (1634), Rhode Island (1644) and New Haven (1644) in New England region. between 1630 and 1640 nearly nine thousand people came to settle in this area. This period is called the Great Migration. After obtaining a charter Massachusetts Bay Company, John Winthrop led this migration and established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the region of New England and became the Governor of that colony. He soon established Boston as the capital of Massachusetts Bay Colony which later became the most prosperous colony in the region. He maintained a faithful record of daily events in his journal called “History of New England” between 1630 and 1648. His essay “A Model of Christian Charity’ published in 1630 tries to reconcile the relationship between the welfare of the individual and that of community based on a contractual basis. “We must be knit together in this work as one man, we must entertaine each other in brotherly Affection… The end is to improve our lives to doe more service to the Lord, the comforte and encrease of the body of christe whereof wee are members that ourselves and posterity may be preserved from the Common corrupcions of this evil world to serve the Lord and work out salvacion under the power and purity of his holy ordinances.. for we must consider that wee shall be as a City upon a hill.” This phrase “City upon a hill” is derived from the Bible’s Sermon on the Mount delivered by Jesus “You are the light of the world. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hidden.”
All men who were church members elected the Governor and representatives for the General Court. They followed the rules of the Old Testament and laid down strict rules for the society. The colony prospered well as the Puritans cultivated crops, cut timber for building ships and bred sheep for making woolen clothes. The Puritan Church or Congregation rejected church hierarchy and veneration of saints and worship of idols or iconography. Their religious rites are also simple and were limited to Baptism and Communion. They gave importance to vernacular Bible--the Geneva Bible which was widely used by the English-speaking people all over Western Europe. They did not encourage the use of musical instruments and choirs in worship. They believed that they were the elect who would obtain grace from God and also by their ideal way of living without pomposity and sensual pleasures. They perceived the fulfillment of the Old Testament in their own lives and looked upon America as “a city on a hill”, a kind if new Eden. They searched and tried to interpret all events and happenings in terms of God’s anger and favor. The Puritan conception of male supremacy or patriarchal society excluded women from decision making in church and in state affairs. Women had to dress themselves correctly covering their hair and arms. They were not allowed to possess property and conduct any business. Women were not allowed to preach scriptures or interpret them. They had to serve God and the community by being good wives mothers and household managers. People had to conform to rules on the Sabbath such as prohibition from drinking, swearing, playing cards; the persons who violated these rules were made to pay fines and even were whipped. They believed in marriage, disapproved of illicit sexual activities and condemned adultery. They had to do everything in moderation and condemned those who indulged in excess in any activity.
The Puritan society cherished the ideals of self-government, frugality, industry or hard work, and religious and moral values. Most of the books written during this period are mostly realistic and religious by nature. They gave importance to historical narratives such as personal diaries, sermons, poems and stories written in first person. Most of the Puritan writers preferred plain style without ornate imagery and rhetorical devices since they believed that decorative and ornate words and style was “like painted windows that obscured the clear light of truth.” Their style was plain, distinct, orderly, and emphatic and proportionate” employing rhetorical devices sanctioned by Biblical use such as parables, analogies, similes, and metaphors, rhythmic and formal syntax. Most of the Puritan writers belonged to official circles such as governors, magistrates (John Smith, William Bradford, Edward Winslow, John Winthrop and Samuel Sewall), and theologians or pastors (John Cotton, Nathaniel Ward, Roger Williams and Edward Taylor). Among them Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor were poets and others wrote about history and exploration of the new colony.
The Puritans
believed that good education would make people give up sins and become good
Christians. The first printing press was established in 1636 and in 1640 the first English book "The Bay Psalm Book" was published. Public schools were built in towns from 1635. In some colonies like
Connecticut and Plymouth education was made compulsory for all. Financial
contribution from church, the wealthy people, philanthropists and taxes from
trade helped in developing educational institutions. Harvard College was
established in 1636 followed by Yale in Connecticut (1701), New Haven (1716)
and Rhode Island (1765). Christian-oriented education along with other subjects
like Geography, mathematics, and English Literature ware taught. The first
Public Library was established in Boston in 1636.
Whoever questioned or objected to their views
was looked down as a heretic and was severely punished. As per the census
reports of the Massachusetts Bay many ladies are named after Christian virtues
such as patience, Providence, Silence, Comfort and Hopestill etc. Roger
Williams proposed that the colonists should be fair to native Indians and they
should not be exploited by using force. He also thought that political leaders
should not mix politics and religion. He wanted common people to have more religious
freedom and a fair representation of colonists in the general Court. Roger
Williams was exiled from the colony for his views. He went to establish a
colony at Providence in Rhode Island and founded the Baptist Church. Anne
Hutchinson who migrated from Lincolnshire, England, a follower of the Puritan
Minister, John Cotton, believed that mercy is preordained by God but damnation
is determined by earthly behavior and sin has no vital role to play. At the age
of forty three she went to Boston to join Cotton and became a popular preacher.
The Puritans held that her ideas were in direct contradiction to their beliefs
and she was declared as a heretic and was banished from the colony. She left
for the island of Aquidneck in the Rhode Island at the suggestion of Roger
Williams where they founded Portsmouth.
Most of the immigrants that came to this
colony were well-educated and came from upper middle class families unlike the
Pilgrims who migrated to America on the ship called “The Mayflower” in 1620
seeking religious freedom during the reign of James I in from England. Cotton
Mather, grandson of John Cotton, redefined the divine purpose of the community
and its mission. He tried to infuse determination and perseverance in the minds
of people. Cotton Mather’s magnum opus “Christi Americana” describes the
colonial history and glorifies the Puritan faith of his times. Mather’s verbal skill comparable to that of
Washington, Irving and Melville showed the pedantic eloquence of the great
American orators. He along with Robert Beverly is considered as the founding
fathers of American literary criticism as well. He showed interest in fields of
contemporary knowledge such as natural philosophy and medicine. Due to his
contribution to science he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London
in 1713. Though he worked as a pastor at
Boston’s North Church, he like the other scientists of the day and the later
Deists, saw the orderly laws of Nature and wonders of the creation as
expressions of the Divine creator. He saw
no conflict between science and religion but rather harmony; science was an
incentive to religion that could explain God’s providence and advance divine
purposes in the physical universe. In his essay “Christian Philosopher” and “A
collection of the best discoveries in nature with religious improvements” Mather
attempts to give a rational foundation and explanation to Christianity by trying
to reconcile Scripture Revelation with the new sciences, presenting scientific
explanations supported by theological justifications.” His writings influenced
many eighteenth century writers like Benjamin Franklin and formed a prelude to
nineteenth century’s Transcendentalism. Mather published more than 380 works
covering various forms; sermons, biography, fables, history, theological and
scientific treatises and verse. His writings influenced many eighteenth century
writers like Benjamin Franklin and formed a prelude to nineteenth century’s
Transcendentalism.
Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672) was one of the Early American poets who expressed her Puritan beliefs and her sufferings in a realistic and charming manner. Her first collection of poems “The Tenth Muse” was published without her knowledge in 1650.The remaining poems were published in 1678 after her death. Her poems deal with transitory nature of life and pleasures and her strong faith in God. John Cotton was a senior respected colonial minister who was famous for his sermons. He insisted on enlightened interpretation of the scripture and refused to separate faith and action entirely from one another.
Mary Rowlandson, later Mary Talcott (1637-1711) in her story ”The sovereignty and goodness of God: Being a narrative of the captivity and restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson” offers a moving account of her captivity by Algonquians and her suffering and how her children and relatives were murdered by the natives. After three months she was freed in return for ransom while she had lost her children sold as property during her captivity. She was the first woman to write a narrative in captivity. She believed in God’s grace and predestination when she wrote: “I know, O Lord, that Thy judgments are right, and that Thou in faithfulness hast afflicted me.” Rowland’s narrative contains recurrent images of depression and persistent anxiety though she considers such a state of affliction as a punishment from God and she surrenders to the will of God with strong Puritan faith.
Edward Taylor(1642-1729) a Puritan poet and
minister believed in Calvin’s theories of sinfulness and damnation of all men
and in the salvation of a few who are elected by God’s grace. His poems are in
the metaphysical tradition of George Herbert and John Donne. His poems are an
illustration of “the mystical union with God.” His striking metaphors and sense
of mysticism resemble the style of Emily Dickinson’s poetry. As a strict Congregationalist,
he opposed the plan of union between Congregational and Presbyterian churches.
His theology resembled that of his Boston contemporaries like Michael
Wiggleworth, Cotton Mather and his lifelong friend, Samuel Sewall. He spent his
life as Minister at Westfield. He was a scholar, master of three languages and
an able historian. His poems fall into four groups. The first “God’s
determinations touching His Elect” is a long dramatic allegory written before
1690. The second collection of 217 poems “Preparatory meditations before my
Approach to the Lord’s Supper” was written between 1682 and 1725. The third
group comprises miscellaneous poems in which familiar objects were used to
express metaphysical themes. The work is the “Metrical History” an unpublished
poem of 430 pages in manuscript which describes the history of the Protestant
Church. His verbs are strong, and his imagery is vigorous. His poems glorify
the Christian experience like a sermon. Taylor used Biblical references and
stories from testament. “Christographia” is a collection of sermons about the
human and divine natures of Christ. Taylor left much of his verse unpolished
and uncorrected. It seems that he had not intended his poems for the public
evaluation. Taylor’s works were bequeathed to Yale University by a descendant
in 1883. Only after 1939 a significant selection of his poems were published
and edited by Thomas H. Johnson.
Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) was one of the great revivalist preachers,
philosophers and ministers of the Massachusetts colony and was one of the
founders of the a new religious revival movement known as the Great Awakening
in during 1730’s. In 18th century America, the population was growing
in Massachusetts and Connecticut areas and people got used to more luxuries as
there was rapid growth in trade and scientific progress. As a reaction to the
age of reason and science and to revive the Puritan faith in God, many ministers
gave sermons to inspire people’s faith in religion and moral principles.
Jonathan Edward’s sermon “Sinners in the hands of an angry God” given in front
of a congregation in Enfield, Connecticut was one of the most famous sermons in
American history. He was appalled by the diluted form of Puritanism known as
“Halfway Covenant”. He tried to reinstate a severe brand of Puritanism and
emphasized that the path to salvation lay in the religious feelings and
consciousness of sin and repentance and God’s forgiveness. Though he was
interested in science he believed that science reveals the natural wonders
created by God. He was the founder of “New England Theology” and a precursor of
transcendentalism in his negation of the Hebraic God in favor of an infinite being.
The concept of cosmic god and beauty of creation was explained by Edwards in an
impressive way. To him, as to Ruskin, nature was another book of the Lord, a
vast open Bible revealing divine messages. He delivered more than a thousand
sermons. With a style remarkable for precision he became a very influential
writer of the colonial period. His ability to combine religious intensity with
intellectual rigor and moral earnestness, the cosmic sweep of his theological
vision and his emphasis on faith and love and his uncompromising stand against
all forms of idolatry made his works very popular and well-known.
His well-known works are : “Sinners in the
hands of an angry God”, “The end for which God created the world”, The life of
David Brainerd”, “religious affections”, “The manner of seeking salvation”,
“Freedom of will”, and “pressing into the kingdom of God” etc. All works of
Edwards including his unpublished works are available on line through the
Jonathan Edwards center at Yale University website. The followers of Jonathan
Edwards and his disciples are called “New Light Calvinist Ministers” as opposed
to the traditional “Old Light Calvinist Ministers.”
Michael Wigglesworth (1631-1705) was a Puritan minister, doctor and poet who emigrated to America and settled in New Haven. He preached at Charlestown and later worked as pastor at Malden till his death. In his long poem “The day of Doom; a poetical description of the great and last Judgment” (1662) written in ballad measure, he described the horrors of the last Judgment. His other poems are “A short discourse on Eternity” and “Vanities of Vanity”. He tried a variety of styles and modes to express his theological vision and feelings.
The Puritan
views and ideology influenced the American culture and tradition very much.
Religious freedom, individual effort, hard work, collective responsibility,
emphasis on universal education, simple and austere life without caring for
pomposity and sensual pleasures, self-control and preference to moral virtues
over elaborate rituals are some of the characteristics inherited from Puritans
by the later generations. In literary style they preferred a simple, plain
style devoid of ornate imagery with traditional Biblical allusions. They gave
importance to keen observation, realistic information and historical precision.
Most of them wrote on religious themes filled with devotion and strong faith in
divine justice and grace. One cannot receive salvation through good deeds and
virtues alone. Their actions should be supported by faith in God. Nature to
them is another book of God which reveals God’s mysterious wonders and divine
principles.
They brought about a new religious awakening
and tried to link political affairs and with rigid, religious rules which
brought about many divisions and dissensions among themselves like Quakers (who
opposed wars, rejected rituals and formal creeds and an ordained ministry) and
Deists (who rejected religious concept of revelation and believed that reason
and observation of natural world help in realization of divine presence). Still
most of them have assimilated the Puritan virtues and background with suitable
relaxations and exemptions. The Puritan concept of cosmic God and the
harmonious relationship between religion and science later influenced many
writers like Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Hooker, Washington Irving, H.W.
Longfellow, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Emerson and Thoreau. Though many persons are
critical about Puritan beliefs, the legacy left by this movement continues in
American ethos which mainly relies on liberty of conscience, self-reliance, freedom of
religion and hard work to achieve economic success with a noble mission and
goal.
“You can’t
understand America without understanding the Puritans. In many ways, we’re
still living out their legacy in ways that are good and bad.” – Pete Buttigieg.
“The Puritan’s sense of priorities in life was one of their greatest strengths. Putting God first and valuing everything else in relation to God was a recurrent Puritan theme.’ – Leland Ryken
“By all means read the Puritans, they are worth more than all the modern stuff put together.’ – Charles Spurgeon
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31st August, 2020 Somaseshu Gutala
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