Origin and Development of Essay in English (Part--I)

 

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682)

John Dryden (1631-1700)

Abraham Cowley (1618-1667)

Joseph Addison (1672-1719)

Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)

 The essay is a very flexible and free literary form through which one can express one’s ideas, feelings, thoughts and opinions without any constraints and limits. The length of an essay varies from one page to twenty or more pages depending on the range of the theme, content and ideas. At the beginning the essay was treated as not a great artistic medium. Most writers preferred epic, lyrical and dramatic forms to express their ideas in verse. But in the writings of classical writers like Cicero, Seneca, Plutarch, the tone and style of the essay are perceptible. According to oxford English dictionary Ben Jonson first used the word “essayist” in 1609. Sr William Cornwallis published essays in 1600 and 1617. Robert Burton (1577-1641) and Sir Thomas Browne were other essayists of this period.  The compositions of University Wits like John Lyly, Robert Greene, Thomas Lodge, Thomas Nashe have some of the features of novel and that of an essay. Philip Sydney’s prose work “Apology for poesy” has some semblance of an essay though of uncertain style. Ben Jonson’s critical comments also have some features of the essay. But the style of Elizabethan writers was somewhat rhetorical with ornate style, Latin words and phrases and complicated long winding style with poetic rhythm.

No accurate and precise definition of the term “essay” is seen as it is a very flexible and free prose form. Dr. Johnson defined it as “a loose sally (sudden out rush) of the mind, an irregular, undigested piece, not a regular and orderly performance.” The oxford English Dictionary explains it as a “composition of moderate length on any particular subject or branch of a subject; originally implying want of finish, but now said of a composition more or less elaborate in style, though limited in range.”  From this it is clear that the essay is limited in its scope and does not cover all aspects. But its thematic range is very wide. One can write on any subject and express ideas and thoughts without any restraint. It is a composition not devoted to narrative and the essayist’s role is that of a social philosopher, critic, friend or guide.

The essay can be distinguished more easily by its manner than by its matter. An essay is comparatively short and incomplete in the sense that it treats the subject only in outline or only a branch or division of some greater theme or subject. It can evoke, of course in a narrow range, various types of feelings and emotions. According to W.H.Hudson, “The true essay is essentially personal.” It is subjective and belongs to the literature of self-expression. According to Alexander Smith, the essay resembles the lyric. It is intensely subjective, an expression of moods, likes and dislikes of the writer. 

The origin of the essay is attributed to the Roman writers like Cicero and Seneca whose epistles are regarded as essays rather than letters. Plutarch’s “Moralia” belongs to the same category, being a collection of essays on moral subjects. Montaigne at first used the word “Essais” which means “an attempt” for his collection of writings. He did not deal with the topics elaborately, but made an attempt towards the elucidation of the subject from his own individual point of view. His principal object is to portray himself.  Thus, Montaigne is the first writer who used the essay as a systematic art form. He may be called the father of the subjective or personal essay. He used the essay as a means of self-discovery. The writings of University Wits like Lyly, Robert Greene, Thomas Lodge, and Thomas Nashe had some traces of novel and also features of the essay. Ben Jonson’s critical works also show some of the features of the essay.

The essay form found true expression in the popular essays of Francis Bacon (1561-1626) who is considered as the “Father of English essay.” He transplanted the essay form in England, but he followed a line different that of Montaigne. He wrote on a variety of themes in a laconic style and his essays read like strings of mottoes, proverbs or moralistic sermons on conduct with factual observations and precepts of worldly wisdom. His essays do not portray the man himself but his counsel, civil and moral, in short and crisp sentences which read like aphorisms. So, his essays may be called aphoristic essays with an impersonal or objective touch. They say what they have to say directly without any preface or introduction. His sentences are brief and short and come down like the strokes of a hammer. Bacon regarded the essay as “a receptacle for detached thoughts”. So he called his essays as “dispersed meditations.” His purpose was not to preach ideal morality but to give valuable guidance on a variety of subjects drawn from day to day affairs of practical life. As a busy man of the world he jotted down his experiences and his views on man and life. That is why he defined his essays as “counsels civil and moral.” He used apt analogies, metaphors, similes, classical allusions, scientific facts antithesis and balance to make his statements read like proverbs.  His style is called aphoristic with clarity, precision, brevity and directness. His essays are impersonal, objective and didactic in nature giving advice on civil and moral themes. Bacon published his first volume of ten essays in 1597 and his last volume of 58 essays in 1625. According to Legouis, the French critic, “These essays are the classics of English prose.”

 Abraham Cowley is deemed as the connecting link between Bacon’s essays and the succeeding 17^th century periodical essays. While Bacon’s essays are aphoristic and impersonal, Cowley’s essays are intimate and personal. Sir Thomas Brown’s “Religio Medici” is a classic prose written in 1635 (published in 1643) when he was just thirty years old. It reveals personal reflections on religion mixed with scientific reasoning, faith and scepticism. He used his wide knowledge of classics and theology to prove his views. His style is ornate, Latinate, sonorous, and rich mixed with wit and subtle humour. Both Thomas Cowley and Thomas Browne tried to be more personal like Montaigne in their essays. 

 In Restoration age, there were many prose writers like John Locke, William Temple, Lord Halifax and John Dryden.  Dryden developed a lucid professional style relying on patterns and rhythms of the everyday speech. He wrote in precise, direct and lucid manner with force and vigour. His prose works like “Of dramatic poesy (1667) and “Preface to fables” (1700) reveal a definite progress in the development of the English essay as a means of literary criticism. As a translator he developed an easy manner of what he called paraphrase and he made translated the works of many ancient writers like Homer, Lucretius, Horace, Ovid, Juvenal, Boccaccio, Geoffrey Chaucer etc. His translation of “The Aeneid” is considered as perfect. 

A periodical essay is an essay published in a magazine or journal as a part of series. The eighteenth century is considered as the great age of the periodical essay. Joseph Addison created memorable characters and portrayed the eighteenth century class society, its manners and fashions in a simple, straight and natural style free from extravagant expressions without obscurities and superfluities. He used the language of the contemporary clubs and coffee houses avoiding vulgarity. Addison tried to “enliven morality with wit and to temper wit with morality” setting a model for a decent and refined conduct of a gentleman. His essays show the manners and attitudes of his age. Addison was meticulous and elaborate in the presentation of details and his essays are intended to be “light in tone but weighty in influence.” He brought simplicity, clarity, good manners and elegance to the essay. He contributed nearly 42 essays for the Tatler, a magazine edited by Richard Stele. In “The Spectator” started which lasted from 1711 to 1712, Addison took a leading part and contributed 274 essays. Addison also assisted Steele with “The Guardian” which lasted from March, 1713 to October, 1713. Addison and Stele also gave the essay greater attractiveness and vitality by catering to a much wider circle of readers having a more varied range of interested then others.

 

 Dr. Samuel Johnson, the famous critic and lexicographer, wrote nearly 208 essays from 1750 to 1752 for “The Rambler. His style is often ponderous, lofty and abstract. His tone is mainly didactic, serious and concerned with universal human anxieties and frustrations. He wrote 104 essays in a lighter and casual way in the manner of Addison and Stele in “The idler” in the weekly journal “The Universal chronicle”. These essays are noted for their refinement of English language. In his “Lives of the poets” he expressed his views on the writings of authors like Dryden, Milton, Swift, Thomas grey and Pope.

 Oliver Goldsmith, a contemporary of Samuel Johnson, wrote a series of “Chinese letters” from the perspective of a Chinese philosopher visiting England. These letters were later published in a single volume “The Citizen of the World” in 1762. His character sketches are remarkable for their simplicity, grace and gentle humour.  These essays show vivid and rich human detail and his felicitous style.  He continued the tradition of Addison and Stele using a simple, conversational and lucid style spiced with wit and humour. He was as much inclined as Addison to comment on social behaviour and his attitude was more humane than that of Addison.

The essayists of this period sketched certain type of human characters with specific qualities. They followed the method of the Greek philosopher Theophrastus and the Roman Seneca. The character sketches of various types of men and women are seen in the essays of Joseph hall, Thomas Overbury and John Earle. They are filled with realistic description, humour and satire. Addison used the middle style seasoned with wit and gentle irony to correct the defects and give friendly advice to the society. On the continent La Bruyere’s “Caracteres” was published in 1668. Sir Thomas Browne and Cowley also followed this trend in spirit and style though they tried to be more personal like Montaigne.

                          ****************************

   4th December, 2020                       Somaseshu Gutala

   

 

CURRY LEAVES

 

                       

                    

     1)   These dark green leaves with pungent smell now seen

       As a storehouse of vitamins, a herbal source

      That purifies our guts and gives us strength and force

      Maintains our system strong and clean.

 

    2)       Whatever people assume and perceive

      These leaves add flavor and spice up our plate

      Their presence enough to tickle our taste

      Our steaming soup without them we can’t conceive.

3)   A few leaves suffice to enrich our food

     In every kitchen their use a must

    This healthy herb in spices stands as first

    That cleans our lungs and makes our blood-flow good

 

   4)    Without their touch our curries taste too bland

     Our preparations turn too stale and dull

     In Indian cuisine they cast a magic spell

     These fresh green leaves, a culinary gift to our land.

 

      5) These fresh, green leaves thrown out after their use

          Their essence grabbed; none notice their worth

      Though their fragrance and taste enhance our health

      Mercilessly thrown out as wasteful refuse.

 

   6)       Like them we too, a part of Nature

     We too share same fate in our existence

     When counted most power and wealth immense

     When none respects values and moral stature.

 

     7)  Those whom we love and deeply trust

    Those whom we earnestly help with feelings warm

    Throw us at once like leaves in a storm

    Our steadfast faith shaken crumbles down to dust.

 

     8)    Our elders too suffer similar fate

     Deprived of status lose their power and hold

     When their youngsters rebel defiant and bold

     Showing scant attention to their state.

 

9)    Our hearts feel deepest pang of pain

When thrown out like worthless trash in haste

As if our feelings count nothing but waste

When whom we love treat us with disdain. 

 

10)     Once you quit your seat you lose your right

       Like orange peels thrown out seems your plight

       Your services and none brings to light

       Your former staff turn cold and avoid your sight.

 

11)      Our leaders use people as their tools

   Once they succeed look down as fools

   They feel supreme and violate all rules

   To grab their gains, make others slog like mules.

 

12)     Persons deprived of their status seen

   Like curry leaves well-used and thrown

  Who strained their every muscle, nerve and bone;

  And yet they spice our lives like those leaves, fresh and green.

                     *******************************

      28th November, 2020                      Somaseshu Gutala

 Note : 

1)    The curry leaf plant is a native plant of India and is now grown in other south Asian countries like Burma, Ceylon, Australia and China. In every Indian home it is widely used in many dishes like soups, dals, curries and chutneys. In seasoning items, it has an important place. It has many nutritious values and contains calcium, phosphorus, iron and vitamins. It has anti-bacterial properties and improves our digestion and functioning of heart. It lowers blood sugar and bad cholesterol. The curry leaf oil is also used in soap industry. But most of us throw out these leaves after extracting their essence. Hence the Indian idiom “thrown away like curry leaves” implies showing scant regard and recognition after making use of a person. It is equivalent to the English idiom “thrown away like an orange peel.”

2)    In this poem “curry leaves” is symbolically used to show the present trends of the world where man exploits everything with acquisitive tendency and neglects moral values and obligations.   

 

DEAR SON !

                                          

 1)         Alone you strove to reach your goal

             You seem to take everything in easy stride

             Yet never did you go back on what you decide

             As best as you can, you played your role.

 

2)         Your hard work made you win what you sought

             You spent your time in studying a lot

             A group of loyal, beloved friends you got

             A precious gift in this world of greedy thoughts.

 

3)         Fortune too favoured you with ease to obtain

            A decent job in eminent field

            Without too many constraints to yield

            With wider scope much experience to gain.

4)         You observe everything with keen insight

            Your blogs reflect your picturesque style

             With dramatic turns and spirit agile

             Without concealing aught in black and white.

 

 5)        With an exploring eye for everything

             You seem to scrutinise people around;

             Your liberal heart in your dealings found

             A holistic approach from the beginning.

 

6)         Though witty sometimes with sarcastic sting

             Your talk conveys your feelings warm

             You never stay idle, passive and calm  

             Wherever you are, a happy climate you bring.

 

6)          In varied subjects your attention keen

             Gave you much wisdom and knowledge wide;

              Made you a friendly guy with no sense of pride

               A jolly, lovable person with conscience clean.  

 

7)           Though busy and active you outwardly seem

               A recluse at heart with musings deep;

               Fond of woods, lakes and mountains steep

               Reveals your poetic heart and soul, I deem.        

 

 9)          Holy places and monuments you cherish

              The lives of great saints and sages great;

              With strong faith in providence and fate

               For God’s guidance and mercy you ever wish.  

           

10)         My hearty greetings on this memorable day

               May you receive the grace of Mother Divine;  

               Let Her gracious looks on you ever shine,

               Upon your happy family I ever pray.     

               ============================

   Dear Subash,

                       On this happy occasion I wish you a very happy and brilliant future to you. You made great progress in your life. Imagine a shy, reserved kid from a small village turned into a decent computer engineer working in a big city in U.S. A great leap indeed! By God’s grace you are blessed with a lovely family and an amiable circle of friends. Your relatives also love you very much for your warm and affectionate feelings. On this happy occasion I wish that you achieve many more laurels in your career and May God fulfil all your wishes.

                                                                            Your loving Dad

                                                                                             G.S.

                 

            22nd November, 2020                        Somaseshu Gutala
                                                

SUNSET MUSINGS

 

      

                       

 1)  Let not our lives be stagnant pools

     Why feel nervous, be steady and cool

     No professional ordeals to test

     Your endurance and disturb your rest;

     No family burdens to ruffle thy brain;

     No rivalries with peers to compete

     No tensions and arguments with heat;

     No mounting expenses your purse to drain;

     Why should we rack our brains with worries vain?

      About our future unknown with unnecessary strain?

 

2)   Don’t feel your position and power are lost

       In this material world nothing does last;

       Though experience made you a little bit wise

       You are not master of all; exercise

       Control on what you do, say and advise 

       Times and tastes change, feel no shock or surprise;  

       Watch from respectful distance, be calm

       Don’t be an interfering, peeping Tom.

 

3)     Compel not youngsters to leave their tasks and hear

        Your stories and expect applause with cheer;

        Don’t give others troubles-- no stress and strain;

        Waste not their busy scheduled time; don’t complain

        Don’t whine for their consistent care and maintain

        Composure; take care of yourself; don’t grieve in vain.

        Control yourself and your attitude; not others, I say.

        Give your suggestions if sought in a modest way.

 

4)      Your generation’s tastes and ways don’t impose

         On them; no list of rules and laws propose;

         Argue not too much and no negative thoughts;

         Times change our ways; no use of retrieving past;

         A lot of time and leisure you do possess

         Help others if you can; don’t assess

         Others boasting about your experience and age;

         Be a part of this world; control your craze. 

 

5)      Enough resources you have by divine grace

         And still you strive with wants, your remaining days

         Desires deprive you of your contented state

         And make you view your life as waste;

         No uniformity in world you find

         Even heavenly bliss can’t satisfy your mind;

         Spend your time in peaceful contentment

         Enjoy what you possess; no use of resentment.

 

6)      Good books revitalize your ageing mind

          In arts and hobbies solace you find;

         Waste not your time in arguments vain

         Widen your range with knowledge and wisdom gain;

          Most of our bonds like passing clouds vanish

          Know this and clouds of loneliness banish

          Time’s plan you have to follow, no more dread

          With faith in God and yourself, go ahead;

          Our destined end like setting sun comes near

          Into new domains move on with philosophic cheer.

                   *******************************

                        

           16th October, 2020                       Somaseshu Gutala

             

Managers

 

      

   1)   How often do we use this word to mean      

         A way of doing things in a dubious way

         As if we are always right and never stray

         Yes—we manage ourselves though seen or unseen.

  2)    Our family burdens we try to manage              

        By pleasing others or our persons known

        If not treated as strange creatures and overthrown;

        We have to act like puppets on the stage

 

   3)  Our seniors and leaders we should manage 

        Showing due respect and give their gifts due

        If you oppose, you get yourself in stew;

        Our scriptures too command respect in every page.

 

       4)   In offices also we should manage

        With tempting bribes and bakshis a lot

        If not, you can’t melt their rigid and stagnant hearts

        No use of quoting rules and advice sage.

 5)   In getting loans and rise in wages too

       One has to tread with tactful care

       One has to yield to them and give their share

       And what they demand one has to simply do. 

 

    6)    In homely life we can’t avoid this clue

      To get things done by our members dear

      To keep them in good spirits and cheer

      If not, you turn their faces red or blue.

 

   7)    Like hanging knives above, our duties surprise

      Fret not, none hears, manage them wise;

      Your furious words may land you in soup

      Trolling remarks assault you in group.

 

     8)   We have to manage with growing age

      Our chronic complaints and growing ills

      With limited income, our medical bills;

      We have to manage to come out through this maze.

 

   9)    We may not reach of what we have thought

     We have to manage with what we possess

     Our destiny was set beyond our guess

     Accept with peace whatever you got.

 

  10)   Even our gods we try to please and manage

      Promising gifts to grant our desires

      Our motives only our faith inspire

      In a mutual give and take our gods we engage.

 

11) Whatever service you require you need

     To manage someone or other to please

     Even saints and sages fell to this

     To hike their status and get things done with speed.

 

12)   You can’t speak out open like a fool

         You will be looked down as a savage strange

         Who can’t control and goes out of range

          Smart management, a universal rule.

13)    Our gods wisely managed their powers and might

          Demons proudly misused their strength with spite

          Rash words and acts push us into wretched plight

         Managing ourselves , a sure way to peaceful delight.    

 

  14)   Our society, prefers this useful   stand;

          Manage well or suffer your fate and none

          To pull you out of what you have done.

          Into unpredictable troubles you will land.

 

15)     A superb art, this smart managing skill

           Hasty decisions spoil our inner ease

           Life’s lessons we have to realise in peace;

           To get some things done, you have to bend your will.

                 *****************************

             12th October, 2020                     Somaseshu Gutala

Note : This poem gives a humorous sketch of the changing values in our society where priority is given to materialistic values at the expense of emotional and moral values. The individual is compelled to compromise his values and move with the flow for his ultimate survival and livelihood. 

                                  Bakshis --- tips.

                                 Get oneself stewed --- get upset 

            

       

   

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

A Country’s Dream (Part—II)

  

Emanicipation Proclamation by Abraham Lincoln in 1863.

Harryu Truman(1884-1972)

                                                                                               Franklin Roosevelt (1882-1945)                                   

 

The Puritan migrants in 1630’s went to America to practice their own religion of choice without harassment. They wished to set up an ideal Christian colony and thought that God had led them to new world and regarded New England as “city upon a hill.” For them it is a new kind of Jerusalem, Garden of Eden or new Israel.  The Spanish missionaries also went to America to convert Native Americans to Christianity. The Germans after the failed revolution in 1848 fled to America to lead a happy in the new world. The discovery of gold mines in California in 1849 caused many immigrants to go to America in search of procuring instant success and wealth. The availability of vast virgin land with plenty of natural resources available at throw away prices spurred many people to explore new avenues for getting wealth and a happy life free from religious, political and traditional restraints. 

The famous Historian, Frederick Jackson Turner, in 1893 propounded the “Frontier Thesis’ for evolution of the American dream. Turner proposed that American character had been greatly enhanced and shaped by the presence of a vast frontier creating favorable conditions for population mobility, Inventiveness and democratic spirit. According to Turner, ”The forging of the unique and rugged American identity occurred at the juncture between the civilization of settlement and the savagery of wilderness. The spirit and success of America is directly tied to the westward expansion.” He added that America’s character would gradually change with closing of the frontier and the growth of urban environment. But there is a lot of scope for Americans to transform their traits in the present scenario where they have to face so many challenges and avenues too. Advancement in science and technology, economic prosperity and global relations impact their attitudes and way of thinking.

 Slave labor became a social practice in America to provide workers to work in fields, orchards, mines, docks and industries in 18^th and 19^th centuries. So many Africans were compelled to go to America as laborers. Thus America has become a multi-cultural and multi-racial society. 

In course of time the concept of the American dream has been extended to include all the inhabitants irrespective of race, colour and religion. Many social reformers and politicians strove to eliminate racial discrimination and gender discrimination. Abraham Lincoln with his “Emancipation Proclamation” in 1863 declared that all persons held as slaves within any state are forever free. Woodrow Wilson supported women’s voting rights. The American President, Frank Roosevelt in his “Economic Bill of Rights” in 1944 defined the pursuit of happiness as decent housing, a good job and healthcare. President Harry Truman’s “Postwar Social Contract” included G1 Bill providing government-funded college degrees for returning veterans. Truman’s Fair deal proposition expanded the concept of the American dream to include entitlement: “If you worked hard and played by the rules, the government should guarantee financial security, education, healthcare and a home.” On August 28, 1963 Martin Luther King explained American dream in his famous speech “I have a dream” demanding freedom and for economic and civil rights to all and an end to racism in the United States.

 President Lyndon Johnson promoted the Civil Rights Act of 1964 ending segregation in schools and protecting workers from discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex or national origin. Presidents George W. Bush and Bill Clinton supported the dream of home ownership. President Barack Obama supported the legal benefits of the Marriage Act regardless of sexual orientation. To alleviate the adverse effects of economic depression he extended unemployment benefits and increased government assistance for student loans. He also furthered F.D.R.’s (Franklin Delano Roosevelt) idea that everyone should have access to affordable healthcare. “Make America great again” (abbreviated as MEGA) is a campaign slogan frequently used in American politics. Many American presidents like Bill Clinton, Ronald Reagan and recently Donald trump popularized this slogan indicating the ambition behind the American dream of making America the foremost leading nation in all fields in the whole world.

In course of time the American dream acquired some negative connotations also such as materialistic outlook, too much competition, craze for luxuries, over consumption, drug addiction, sexual abuse, degraded social values, sporadic violence, rising inflation, mounting debts and pollution. Craze for power, expansion of capitalist ideology, and wealth pushed American nation in interfering with other countries’ political affairs. This took a heavy toll on expenses and military expenditure. The race for acquisition of nuclear weapons and space travel also caused a heavy drain on its economy. Global problems like climate change, epidemic diseases, radiation, and competition in nuclear arms-race made America to play its dominant role in guiding the world. 

Some say that the American dream has become mere pursuit of material prosperity—that people work more hours to get bigger cars, posh houses, and prosperity for their families, but have less time to enjoy their affluence. Others say that the American dream is beyond the grasp of the poor. Some people look forward to leading a simple and peaceful life with less focus on financial gains and wasteful luxuries. William James called the American dream “the bitch-goddess success” with her “squalid cash interpretations.”

 American Literature may be described broadly as an expression of the American dream. Scott Fitzgerald’s “The great Gatsby” (1925), Arthur Miller’s “Death of a salesman” and Theodore Dreiser’s “An American Tragedy’ (1925) show the negative aspects of the American dream. The famous American dramatist, Eugene O’Neill exposed the illusory nature of the American dream in his plays. Ernest Hemingway in his novel “The old man and the sea” considers success and inner peace as concepts of the American dream. William Dean Howells in his novel “The rise of Silas Lapham” discusses the life of a self-made man depicting America as a land of opportunities with endless possibilities.

 In the present scenario the American nation has a vital role to play in controlling pollution and maintaining world peace. As a wealthy and developed nation it can extend help to other developing and backward countries as in the present circumstances one country cannot survive alone isolated from others. All countries are connected with one another and the welfare of one nation depends on the welfare of other nations in the world. Apart from being called as the land of opportunities where one can rise from rags to riches by hard work and toil, America should turn her attention to global welfare and preservation of mankind from man-made disasters like wars, pollution, nuclear radiation and indiscriminate destruction of Nature and other living beings for material benefits and luxuries. A harmonious, peaceful co-existence is the need of the hour. In short, the American dream is a continuous social phenomenon which acquires new dimensions and aspects to help mankind move forward blending past tradition and present innovations for the benefit of all.

                                   ******************************

   3rd October, 2020                                Somaseshu Gutala