AT THE ZOO

   

               









                                                                                       









                           ( I )


                                      When I behold you, different species 
                                      Of God's blest creation, I feel
                                      The hidden links of my thoughts and roots
                                      That bind the human race with you :
                                      We are skin-deep in human mould ;
                                      Not yet true humans in our hearts ;
                                      Beneath our bosoms lurk more devils  
                                      More dreadful and bloodthirsty than you !

           

                                        










                                                                                              

















                                                              ( II )

                                      Man's love can bounce as fast as you
                                      Thou, spotted large-eyed Deer !
                                      Man's lust, when roused, as wanton as thou
                                      Brown-striped growling tiger of the woods !
                                      Man's greed outspeeds thee, tawny Pard !
                                      And makes a gash more cruel than thy paws
                                      Behind the back for petty selfish ends ;
                                      In filthy desires we wallow
                                      Indulge in selfish acts as low
                                      As Thou, slit-eyed fat Swine !
                                      Pot-bellied men on power , lust and greed
                                      Much more than thou can voraciously feed
                                      Like you, low-hissing scaly Reptiles !
                                      Our hearts are full of poisoned viles
                                      Our wants, unquenched, day by day become
                                      As long as you, Sleek-skinned Giraffe !
                                      To touch the stars without content !
                                      We swing like fiends for earthly ends
                                       As fickle-minded as you, Our nearest Friends !
                                       We spurn our ideals to pursue our gains
                                       Though tailless, Oh our ambitions have no end !
                                       There live some more dare-devils as stubborn
                                       As you, hard-horned dark-skinned Bison !
                                       To seize by force whatever they like to grab.
                                       We shed more tears to cheat innocent guys                 
                                       And swallow their lives more often than thou
                                       Monster of oceans, wide-mouthed crocodile !
                                       Our crooked wits outsmart thee, cunning Fox !                
                                       Our leaders more rapacious than ravenous wolves !
                                       Man turns more cruel than wild  beasts for selfish gains
                                       Alas ! ignorant of his numbered days of Life !

                               

                                

                                                                                                  

                                        










                         
















              

                                                                    (  III  )

                                        In midst of us, there live some noble souls
                                        Who can foresee the future and will guide
                                        With an eagle-eyed vision, God-Given :
                                        Men who can fight in noble ways of sacrifice
                                        Like Thee, Oh sandy-brown Monarch of beasts !
                                        Men whose fancies have danced with clouds
                                        Like you, bright-eyed Iris-tinted proud Pea-cocks !
                                        Men who did strive to spread the dawn of peace
                                        Like you, snow-feathered cooing Doves !
                                        And men who sang the dulcet notes of Love !
                                        Like you, Skylarks, from heights of Fancy above !
                                        Men who are as swift as striped mules or horses !
                                        In their quick sense of wit and imagination !
                                        Men who in their majestic ways can vie
                                        With you, Stout-legged, white-tusked Elephants !
                                        Men who fought with odds like tough-skinned rhinos
                                        Men who slashed evil with their steely grip like mongoose :
                                        Men who regaled our hearts like merry dolphins ;
                                        Men who defeated with their technical skills and thoughts
                                        Dangers more perilous than dinosaurs or dragons !
                                        
                                                                       (  IV )

                                        So many thoughts surrounded me, Dear Comrades !
                                        When I behold you staying in this zoo :
                                         In world's labyrinthine woods, we too wander
                                         Survival of the fittest rules our realm
                                         Great lessons can we learn from you
                                         If we desire to live like men in sincere ways :
                                         We have to love and help you, Birds and Beasts !
                                         God created all and in all life is the same
                                         Without true love Man is merely a name
                                         Lower than beasts untamed : A blot of shame .

                                                 ******************************
                                  

                                 
                     
                                          
                                             


                                         
                                        

         25th August, 2016                                                                            Somaseshu Gutala

                                                          
      

THE TRAVELER'S PARADISE

                                                           I                   

                            With bouncing zeal I started       

                                      A Knapsack hung from my shoulder

                                      With a jolly springy gait               

                                       I took to road -- no goal--

                                       But move on and on till

                                       I go beyond the rim I see

                                       I walked and walked not caring for things  

                                       That came across my long, long way.

                                                          II

                                         The ruddy disc of sun

                                         Turned gold and bright   

                                         It reached its zenith 

                                         Too bright and blazing white

                                         Hot winds swirled round like fire

                                         My feet tasted a burning pain 

                                         My tongue dried up and yet

                                         I dragged my feet on and on

                                         I cared not to wait till morn.

                                                      III

                                          A steep hill blocked my way

                                         I scaled the burning rocks

                                         My heart beat fast and knocked

                                         Against my ribs ; I felt

                                         Forlorn ; I crawled like a beast

                                         To keep going ; I sat at last

                                         Under a dome of marble ;

                                         I felt the cool touch of the floor

                                         As cool as mother's touch  

                                         So smooth and creeping into my blood ;

                                         I lay down there for hours

                                         I thanked my Lord who showed

                                         Me this haven to rest ;

                                         I closed my eyes and blest 

                                         That place and dreamt

                                         Of my place from whence I came :     

                                         No more can I prolong

                                         This aimless, mad pursuit.

                                         

                                                                IV

                                         I turned my back to road

                                         That still went on and on so long

                                         Through innumerable twists and turns

                                         Mocking at my slow, dragging pace ;

                                         Adieu to Road ! I feel content          

                                         To be within my means ;

                                         It's mad to span thy form infinite ;

                                         Adieu ! Boundless bearer of freedom !

                                         I'll go back to my home

                                         And feel the inner peace

                                         Under the shady trees

                                         On the soft lap of lawns           

                                         Viewing the distant glories of the dawn.   

                                           

                                             +++++++++++++++++++++++         

                                                   

  Note : This poem symbolically describes the struggles of a traveler to find his ultimate goal in the external world. In spite of his determined and stubborn efforts he comes to the conclusion that his search for truth in outer world is futile and the real secret lies in peaceful  contemplation. The fountain of peace is actually within his own soul and not in the showy external tempting world.

      20th August, 2016                                                                       Somaseshu Gutala

                                         

  

                                          

             




              

THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN MAURYAN TIMES

Male Figure with waist band

Male Dress

Woman's dress

                   

This is a modest attempt to present a glimpse of the social conditions in Mauryan times from a layman's point of view. As human beings everyone is interested in knowing about the society in the past for the simple reason that our present has sprung from the past in many aspects such as habits, customs, religion, dress, language, culture etc. In Indian history the Mauryan rule occupies a vital phase as it was a period of synthesis and transition. Prior to this, India was divided into small kingdoms. Under the sovereign rule of Mauryas most parts of India came under one emperor's rule. The links of unity were forged by such things like uniform administration, uniform code of law and justice. Thus at the critical time of foreign invasions, a united India, the utmost need of the hour, was given by Mauryan rule. Most of the foreign influences were absorbed by India into her cultural fold to enrich her wide, catholic culture of diversity with underlying unity. The Mauryan kingdom was divided into five provinces or Janapadas : Eastern and central part with Pataliputra as capital; Eastern Province (Kalinga) with Tosali as center; northern province with Takshsila as center; and Southern province with Suvarnagiri as center. The eastern and central province was under the care of the king himself. The other provinces were looked after by provincial governors, generally by royal princes of the family called Kumaras.

Statuettes made of terracota

Figurine of a Goddess




                                                                                          

Goddess (2)

Yaksha

Yaksha, Sanchi

                                             

                                                             

 The Mauryan rule started in 322 B.C. with the ascension of Maurya Chandragupta to throne and ended with Brihadratha who was murdered by his chieftain, Pushyamitra in 185 B.C. Under the Mauryan rule an efficient administrative system came into existence. Though the king was the supreme authority he was guided and advised by a council of ministers called "Mantri Parishad". There were also Amatyas from whom the heads of various departments (Adhyakshas) were selected. Generally they were not more than thirty superintendents or Adhyakshas for various deparments. Some of them are given below just to give you an idea about their administrative set up. The main duty of superintendents is to collect revenue of their respective departments and also to look after the problems and affairs of their depts. Under each supdt. there were clerks to execute their instructions.

                      1)         Akahalapadhyaksha ----  Accountant General

                      2 )        Sannidhata               ---    Head of Royal Treasury    

                      3)         Kostagaradhyaksha  ----   Treasury Superintendent

                      4)         Suvarnadhakysha    - ----  Supdt. to look after Gold transactions

                      5)         Akaaradhyaksha      ---  Supdt. for Mines Department

                      6)         Pannyadhyaksha      -----   Supdt. for Commerce

                      7)         Kupyadhyaksha      ----     Supdt. for Forest Dept.

                      8)         Lavanadhyaksha   - ----    Supdt. for Salt Dept.

                      9)        Aayudhagaradhyaksha  ---  Supdt. for armoury dept.

                    10)        Tulaamanadhyaksha    ---- Supdt. for weights and Measures

                    11)        Sutradhyaksha          --- -    Supdt. for textiles and spinning

                    12)        Sitadhyaksha              -----   Supdt. for agriculture
                     
                    13)        Suradhyaksha               ---- Supdt. for excise

                    14)        Navaadhyaksha             ----  Supdt. for shipping and Maritime

                    15)        Mudraadhyaksha         -----   Supdt. for Govt. Archives and documents

                    16)       Pattanadhyaksha          ----   Supdt. for ports

                   17)        Lakshanadhyaksha       -----  Supdt. for mint and coinage

                   18)        Samsthadhyaksha         -----  Supdt. for trade routes

                    19)       Samaaharta                ------   Collector of general revenue



 At District level there used to be three levels of officials. Pradesika was the senior officer under whom Rajuka (junior officer) and Yukta (clerk) worked. It is the duty of Pradesika to tour the whole district once in five years to collect the details of the administration. The district officers had to look after irrigation, industries, forests and roads. At town level there were town officials working under Municipal Board consisting of thirty members who were divided into six committees to look after navy, transport and supply, marketing, factories, sales tax, care of strangers, espionage, priests etc. In cities the Municipal administration was streamlined in a systematic manner. The city was divided into wards and each ward was under the care of one officer called Sthanika. Curfew was imposed in cities from 9.00 p.m. to 3.30 a.m. At village level the Gramika was elected by villagers to look after them. He was assisted by a group of village elders to take care of village in all aspects. The head of the ten villages is called Gopa and the head of a hundred villages is called Sthanaka. There was a separate department for roads whose duty was to maintain good roads with separate tracks for cattle, pedestrians, chariots and other modes of conveyances. Their duty was also to grow trees, to look after drinking water facility and to look after welfare of pilgrims in the wayside inns.To look after various military forces there was a war council with six sub-councils with five members in each sub-council to take care of the six divisions in the army-- infantry, cavalry, elephant force, chariots and navy. According to Megasthenes, the Mauryan army consisted of 6,00,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry and 9000 war elephants.

Punch Marked Coins

punch marked Karshapana

 The land revenue collected by the state varied from 1/6 to 1/4 depending upon the location and nature of the soil. Mostly crops such as wheat, pulses,grain , mustard, sesamum and linseed were cultivated. Forest tax, water tax, excise duty, taxes from traders and craftsmen, and mines tax are some of the sources for state revenue. Some of the most popular industries in those days were pottery, drugs, perfumes and dyes. Private industries flourished under the control of trade guilds. Traders had to obtain licences from Panyadhyaksha. Food adulteration was punishabe by death. There used to be doctors (Bheshajas), nurses and midwives to treat the sick patients.Money-lenders were allowed to charge 15% interest on their loans.

 As regards their dress, they continued wearing three pieces of unstitched cloth as seen in Vedic Age. The rich wore fine muslin and silk clothes embroidered in purple and gold. Others wore clothes made of cotton and jute fabric. " A length of cloth was wrapped around hips tightly to form a tubular skirt. A longer version was knee-length wrapped around the waist with pleats tucked in front and the shorter or second end drawn through legs to the back. A patka or a decorative length of fabric was worn round the waist and tucked into the antariya hanging at the front."


During Mauryan times the popular currency was Karshapana or Pana, a silver punch-marked coin weighing between 3.19 gms to 3.43 gms. They were generally round , square or elliptical in shape. Each coin has nearly five punches with overlapping symbols of the sun, six-armed symbol, geometrical , floral figures, birds, animals and  human figures etched on it. According to kautilya's Arthsastra, there are coins like Arthapana, Padapana (I/4 of Karshapana) and Astabhaga (1/8 of Pana). In Pre-Mauryan period also since 600 B.C. there used to be punch-marked coins. These symbols might be the indicators of the locality and the ruler. These punch-marked coins were in use till 1st century A.D. and up to 3 rd century A.D. in the south of India. The earlier coins were flatter and thin in size.

 As wood was mostly used in construction of houses, vessels filled with water were kept in all public places as a precautionary measure against fire accidents. Washermen were allowed to wash clothes at one place only to maintain cleanliness in the city. Dowry system (kanya sulka that is paying some price to get a bride) existed in those times also. Widows were allowed to marry the relatives of their husbands, especially when the bride was a virgin. Divorce was permitted by mutual consent of the couple, or when the husband's conduct was immoral or when the husband was too ill to share family life. Post-puberty marriages were allowed. Pratiloma marriages (higher caste people can marry lower caste ladies) were admissible. Poygamous marriages were allowed especially among aristocratic sections of the society. There was no custom of Sati. There were separate courts to look after civil and criminal cases namely Dharmasthya (civil) and kantakasodhana (Criminal). The punishments were very rigid such as mutilation of limbs and beheading etc. The prisons had factories which extracted penal labor from the prisoners. The city morals were protected by an officer called the "Ganikadhyaksha"who also looked after the welfare of the concubines or Veshyas.

Yakshini

Yakshini under an Asoka Tree

According to Megasthenes, there were seven types of castes or groups in the Mauryan society such as farmers, soldiers, craftsmen, herdsmen, traders, magistrates and Scholars or Brahmins. This grouping is based on profession and not on birth factor. The caste system was not rigid in those days. The servants or Dasas formed the lowest caste and Grihapatis corresponds to Vaisya Caste. There was no slavery system. Some people became Dasas (servants) of their own accord to earn their livelihood. Learned brahmins were respected everywhere. Most of them acted as priests, philosophers, doctors, and diviners. They used to grow long hair which was twisted up and covered with a turban. The dress in Mauryan times consisted of a garment covering the body up to shins, one cloth thrown over shoulders and a turban. People wore earrings and used high-heeled shoes of white leather. Brahmins acted not only as priests but also actively participated in wars. They practised the Vedic religion of sacrifice or Yagna. In Buddhist and Jaina Sanghas women also actively participated in religious work. People worshipped Durga, Vishnu, Shiva, Subrahmanaya, Indra, Vaiswanara, Aditi, Savita, Soma, Krishna, Balarama and Paulomi. Image worship was not prevalent. Common people used to worship the goddess of fertility and wealth  known as Yakshini  who was shown amidst foliage surrounded by trees. The images of these folk gods and goddesses were made of terracotta and found in large numbers during excavations in Vidisha, Mathura and and Patna. There were no temples during Mauryan period. These images might have been kept in huts or in the niches of the houses.

 From Kautilya's writings it is clear that religion resembled the Vedic Atharvanaveda times rather than the later classical Hindu age. Pali was the language spoken by people and Brahmi script was widely used in writing. During the ascent of Buddhism the Mauryan king Ashoka used Pali language to propagate his ideals of Dharma and Buddhist principles. Religious tolerance was shown towards all religions. Ashoka, honored brahmins though he favored Buddhist faith. King Bindusara declared himself as a devotee of brahmins or Brahmanabhakta. In  matters of food, there was a marked shift towards vegetarianism due to the influence of Jainism and Buddhism both of which forbade animal sacrifices and preached the principle of Ahimsa towards all living creatures. The meat of certain animals and birds such as parrots, geese, chakravakas, sarikas, tortoises, porcupine and rhinoceros were prohibited. The kings relished the meat of pea-cocks and deer. In His Rock Edict No.I and IV Ashoka prohibited killing of animals during ceremonies and functions and declared certain days on which animal food should not be consumed. He himself gradually gave up non-vegetarianism. Ashoka created the new post of an officer called "Dhamma Mahamatra " in the thirteenth year of his rule to act as custodians of the legal and spiritual matters in the society. The Persian and Greek influences are seen in the sculptures and construction of  stupas and rock-edicts and in minting of coins. The Mauryan kings has trade relations with countries like Ceylon, Persia, Afghanistan, Egypt, Arabia and Macedonia.

 Thus a brief review of the conditions of the  Indian society in Mauryan times reveals a free society with  a liberal outlook adjusting itself to outside influences without alienating itself from its original roots. As Ashoka declared on his rock edicts, Samyamana (Self-control) and Bhavasuddhi (Purity of thought) formed the basis of the Mauryan kingdom which conquered the whole world not with sword but through its universal message of peace, non-violence and tolerance.

                                   

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                       9th August, 2016                                      Somaseshu   Gutala